Bonin Islands  Notes  Source  Whalesite

PUBLICATIONS OF OP50–E, Occupied Areas Section.

OPNAV 50E-1.
   Restricted, Military Government Handbook, Marshall Islands, 17 August 1943.

OPNAV 50E-1s.
   Restricted, Civil Affairs Handbook, Marshall Islands Statistical Supplement,20 May 1944.

OPNAV 50E-2.
   Restricted, Military Government Handbook, Kurile Islands, 1 November 1943.

OPNAV 50E-3.
   (FM 27–5), Unclassified, United States Army and Navy Manual of Military Government and Civil Affairs,22 December 1943.

OPNAV 50E-4.
   Restricted, Civil Affairs Handbook, Administrative Organization and Personnel of the Japanese Mandated Islands, 1 January 1944.

OPNAV 50E-5.
   Restricted, Civil Affairs Handbook, East Caroline Islands,21 February 1944.

OPNAV 50E_7.
   Restricted, Civil Affairs Handbook, West Caroline Islands, 1 April 1944.

OPNAV 50E-8.
   Restricted. Civil Affairs Handbook, Mandafed Marianas Islands, April 1944.

OPNAV 50E-9.
   Restricted, Civil Affairs Handbook, Izu and Bonin Islands, 10 July 1944.

OPNAV 50E-10.
   Restricted, Civil Affairs Studies, I. Illustrative Cases - from Past Occupations, 10 June 1944.

OPNAV 50E-12.
   Restricted, Civil Affairs Handbook, Taiwan (Formosa). 15 June 1944.

OPNAV 50E-13.
   Restricted, Civil Affairs Handbook, Taiwan (Formosa)— Economic Supplement, 1 June 1944.

Activities desiring copies of the above publications should make request directly to the Chief of Naval Operations, Occupied Areas Section.

NAVAL CIVIL AFFAIRS PUBLICATIONS

1. There will be issued from time to time several types of civil affairs publications for the guidance and assistance of naval personnel in carrying out their responsibilities in occupied areas. These publications will be principally Handbooks, Guides, and Manuals.

2. Civil Aflairs Handbooks are factual studies of general information pertaining to civil affairs in specific areas.

3. Civil Affairs Guides are studies of anticipated civil affairs problems. In no sense is a Guide, as such, to be taken as an order or a statement of official policy. Such orders and statements of policy will be issued in the normal manner.

4. Civil Affairs Manuals establish basic principles, procedures, and methods of dealing with civil affairs for naval personnel. The broadest of these is the Army–Navy Manual of Military Government and Civil Affairs, (FM 27–5, OpNav 50E-3).

5. Civil Affairs Studies will include Pocket Guidebooks for the indoctrination of troops in the characteristics and customs of occupied areas; special studies on military government and civil affairs techniques of other powers; and other material as found useful.

LETTER OF PROMULGATION

CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK

IZU AND BON IN ISLANDS

OPNAV 50E-9

      1. OPNAV 50E-9 is a non-registered RESTRICTED publication. It is intended to provide useful information for civil affairs officers in the area indicated, but the material contained herein may be of value to other officers and for other purposes.

      2. This publication is to be used and stowed in accordance with the provisions of U. S. Navy Regulations, Articles 75,75 1/2 and 76.

      The islands covered by this handbook fall into two distinct groups: the Izu archipelago, which extends southward from Tokyo Bay to approximately 30° N latitude, and the Bonin archipelago, which lies southeast of the Izus and northwest of the Marianas Islands. The Izu Islands are divided for administrative purposes into the O-shima district, consisting of a cluster of larger islands just offshore from Japan, and the Hachijo-jima district, made up of a number of smaller islands widely scattered in a line extending almost due south from the former.

      The Bonin Islands, as defined for the purposes of this handbook, comprise the Ogasawara Gunto or Bonin Islands proper (consisting of the Parry, Beechey, and Bailey Islands), the Kazan Retto or Volcano Islands, and cne island. Marcus, which lies considerably to the eastward. All these islands are combined for administrative purposes under the Ogasawara district.

      The text of this handbook is divided into three parts — (1) Basis Information, (2) Administration and Public Facilities, (3) Economics — each part being subdivided into chapters and topics, numbered decimally. Part 1 is designed to present an over-all survey of basic information on the islands for military administrators. Parts 2 and 3 contain data especially pertinent to particular administrative functions or activities, and are intended primarily for reference • Appended to the text are 32 illustrations, mostly dated about 1939, which, portray important aspects of life and enterprise in the islands. Also attached is a selected bibliography of the sources consulted, with brief critical comments. As indicated by the bibliography, this handbook has been compiled in the main from Japanese sources. Most of the information contained is comparatively rebent, dating largely from the years 1?:35 to 1940.

1. BASIC INFORMATION

11. GEOGRAPHY

111. Location

      Geographic Position. The Izu and Bonin Islands lie north of the Marianas, north-east of the Philippines, east of Formosa and the Ryukyu Islands, south of Tokyo, and about 3,000 miles west of Honolulu. The islands form a roughly linear chain stretching some 650 miles from O-shima, which dominates the approaches to Tokyo Bay, southward to the Volcano Islands. The Izu Islands extend from 34° 37' to 29° 49' N latitude. The Bonin Islands proper lie between 27° 45' and 26° 30' N latitude, and the Volcano Islands, which are included with the Bonins for administrative purposes, extend from 25° 26' to 24° 14' N latitude. With the exception of Naka-no-tori-jima and Marcus Island, all the islands lie within a narrow east-west area ranging from 138° 50' (Zeni-su) to 142° 12' E longitude (Chichi-jima). Naka-no-tori-jima (30° 51' N latitude, 154° 16' E longitude) and Marcus Island (24° 17' N latitude, 153° 58' E longitude) lie roughly 700 miles to the east of Chichi-jima.

      Table of Distances. The approximate distances in nautical miles from Tokyo to the principal Izu and Bonin Islands and island groups, as well as between the latter, are shown in the following table:

      The following table presents approximate distances in nautical or air-line miles from Futami Harbor on Chichi-jima in the center of the Bonins to other points in the Pacific:

      Time. The standard time in the islands, with the exception of Marcus Island, is uniform with that prevailing throughout the four main islands of Japan, which is nine hours in advance of Greenwich. Marcus Island, considerably to the east of the other islands, falls within the minus ten zone (G.M.C.T.).

      Composition and Area. The Izu and Bonin Islands comprise ll: major islands or island groups (see II3 for geological structure and individual descriptions). The total land surface of the islands amounts to 105.13 square kilometers (156. l. square miles), of which nearly 75 per cent is accounted for by the Izu Islands. The following table lists the islands in order from north to south, together with their areas in square kilometers:

112. Climate

      Meteorological Stations. The principal meteorological observatory in the Izu Islands is located at Ozato on Hachijo-jima (position: 33° 06' N, 139° 50' E.; elevation: 267 feet). Available reports of most weather data from this station cover a period of 23 unspecified years. In addition, weather observations have occasionally been made by personnel at the lighthouse on O-shima and by observers on Nii-jima, Kozu-shima, and at Tsubota and Kamitsuki on Miyake-jima.

      Observations with respect to temperature, humidity, wind direction, and rainfall have been made by the Japanese on Chichi-jima in the Bonin Islands since 1898. At the present time the principal meteorological observatory for this region is located at Omura on Chichi-jima (position: 27° 05' N, 142° 11' E; e1evation: 13 feet). Weather data compiled at this station over a period of 23 unspecified years has been included in the tables which follow. During the period 1907–11, temperature observations were made at Okimura on Haha-jima. There is a weather station on Iwo-jima, presumably established in recent years. Although definite information is lacking, it seems very probable that the Japanese also maintain a weather station on Marcus Island.

      Temperature. The Izus enjoy a mild climate, due largely to the influence of the warm Japan Stream which flows northward along the west side of the islands. At Hachijojima the mean annual temperature is 619 F; mean monthly temperatures vary between a minimum of 50°, recorded in January and February, and a maximum of 79°, reached in August. Although the range of mean monthly temperatures in these islands is greater than in the Bonins, the only very warm months are those from July through September, and the only months in which freezing temperatures are ever experienced are from January through March. The difference between day and night temperatures is about 11.° during the cool season and from 8° to 9° during the warm season. The absolute maximum temperature recorded on Hachijo-jima over a 23-year period is 919; the minimum is 30°. Temperatures below freezing occur infrequently. Somewhat more extreme temperatures are experienced on the northern islands, but even on O-shima the temperature is said to be fairly equable. The following table summarizes observations on air temperature at the Ozato station on Hacnijojima for a period of 23 unspecified years:

      The Bonins, lying farther south and also within range of the warm Japan Stream, have a subtropical marine climate with relatively high temperatures. The mean annual temperature is 73° F at Chichi-jima,78° at Haha-jima, and still higher in the Volcano Islands. There are only two seasons: the hot season from April through November, and the cool season from December through March. The summer is long and the heat great, with ful:#y days and somewhat cooler nights. The mean monthly temperature in July and August is 81°. The cool season is temperate and suitable for all kinds of activity. The coldest weather is experienced in January, and February when the temperature sometimes goes as low as 1.5°, but averages between 65° and 63°. Even in these months, however, there is never Frost or snow. The difference between day and night temperatures averages about 10° to ll^* during the cool season, and about 11° to 13° during the warm season. The following table summarizes the results of air temperature observations at the Omura station on Chichi-jima for a period of 23 unspecified years:

      The temperature of the sea water of the Bonins is relatively high and uniform.

      The following table shows the mean annual and monthly sea-water temperatures at Chichijima according to observations made at the oceanological station on Futami Bay during the period 1916-33:

      Although meteorological information for Marcus Island is meager, it is known that air temperatures there are generally higher than in the Bonins and that the summer average is about 89°. An absolute maximum of 99° and an absolute minimum of 60° have been reported.

      Atmospheric Pressure. The mean annual barometric pressure in the Izu Islands is lol.3 millibars (755.8 mm or 29.9 inches). The maximum mean monthly pressure is lol'7 millibars (762.8 mm or 30.0 inches); the minimum is loog millibars (756.8 mm or 29.8 inches). The following table presents data on the mean monthly atmospheric pressure, corrected to mean sea level, as recorded at the Ozato station on Hachijo-jima over a period of 23 unspecified years:

      The mean annual barometric pressure in the Bonins is 1011 millibars (761.0 mm or 29.9 inches). The seasonal variation follows a comparatively steady pattern: the maximum pressure is recorded in January, after which it falls gradually until August,

when the low point is reached; thereafter it increases fairly rapidly. Considerable variation from the norm of mean monthly atmospheric pressures (though not from the general pattern) may be expected in some years. The following table presents data on average barometric pressures, corrected to mean sea level, for a period of 23 unspecified years, and for the year 1937, as observed at the Omura station on Chichi-jima:

      Humidity. The mean annual relative humidity in the Izu Islands is excessive, averaging 77 per cent (100 per cent represents saturation). Atmospheric moisture content is lowest during the winter months, averaging about 68 to 69 per cent from December through February; it reaches a maximum of 87 per cent in June and July. Data on the average monthly relative humidity, compiled from observations made at the Ozato station on Hachijo-jima over a period of 23 unspecified years, are given in the following table:

      The degree of proximity to the Japan Stream has a marked effect upon relative humidity in the various islands. Those islands which are in the stream or nearest to it have an atmosphere which is considerably more moist, especially in winter, than those which are more distant from it.

      The mean annual relative humidity in the Bonins averages about 78 per cent. There is appreciable variation, both seasonal and diurnal, although the range is not as great as in the Izus. The humidity for all months from December through March is under 75 per cent, but from April through October humidities of 80 per cent or more prevail, with the peak of 85 per cent in June. The daily variation is such that the moisture content of the air is nearly always greatest early in the morning; at Chichi-jima the humidity observations at 0600 from June through September average slightly more than .90 per cent.

      The following table presents data on relative humidity as observed at the Omura station on Chichi-jima during a period of 23 unspecified years, the years 1902-04, and the year 1937:

      Rainfall. Precipitation is relatively heavy in the Izus. It is somewhat greater than the rainfall which occurs along the coasts of Honshu, the main island of Japan, and

is more than twice that occurring in the Bonins. According to data collected over a period of 23 unspecified years at Hachijo-jima, the average annual precipitation is about 135 inches (3,438 mm). There is, however, considerable variation from the normal average in particular years or periods of years — for example, in 1929 a total of l55 inches (3,947 mm) of rain fell. Both the quantity of precipitation and the frequency of rainy weather increase as one proceeds southward in the Izus. There is, however, no really dry season anywhere in the troup, and even December and January, which are the drie st months, normally have more than 7 inches of rain and at least 19 rainy days. All of the other months have more than 8 inches. The month of heaviest rains is October with an average of nearly 22 inches of rain and 22 rainy days. The next rainie st months are September, June, and March, respectively. Rain falls during half or more of the days in each month, and the average number of rainy days (days with at least l.0 mm of rain) per year is 227. Heavy rainfalls are common, and precipitation exceeding l; inches in 21, hours has been recorded in every month. In September and October over 11 inches of rain have fallen in 21 hours. Such heavy rainfalls are usually associated with typhoons.

      There are occasional snow flurries in the months from December through March, but the average number of days with snow is only 2.8 per year. The following table presents data on precipitation (both rain and snow) as reported by the Ozato station on Hachijo-jima for a period of 23 unspecified years:

      The amount of precipitation in the Bonins is not great and, in fact, it is less than that at Tokyo. Authorities differ, but it appears that the average amount of rainfall in a year at Omura on Chichi-jima is approximately 62.5 inches (1590 mm). The same station reports an average of 191 rainy days per year. There are no well-defined wet or dry seasons, and each month — except January and February — receives more than 1,inches of rain. The rainiest months are May, which has an average of 8.1 inches and 18 rainy days, and August, which has an average rainfall of 6.7 inches and 17 rainy days. October also averages 18 rainy days, and September, November, December, and January usually average l? each, but the precipitation in these months is considerably less than in May and August. The driest months are February, with an average of 3.1 inches and 15 rainy days, and January, with an average precipitation of 3.9 inches. June usually has the fewest rainy days. The heaviest rainfall in 21 hours ever recorded at the Omura station was 9.1 inches (231.8 mm), which occurred in October. Such heavy downpours are usually associated with typhoons. During the warm season the rain usually falls in sudden and brief showers. Prolonged rainfall, however, is fairly common during the cool season, especially in March and April. The longest rainy period recorded at Omura began about the middle of July and lasted for 21, days, a marked exception. Hail has been known to fall, but is extremely rare. Droughts are likewise unusual, but one of 26 days' duration is reported to have occurred in September. The following table presents data on rainfall (in mm) as observed at Omura on Chichi-jima for a period of 23 unspecified years, the yº; #02-04, and for an unspecified period reported in the Japan-Manchukuo Year Book (1910):

      Rainfall on Marcus Island is slight. In summer there are short and infrequent showers, which occur oftenest in July.

      Cloudiness. The degree of cloud cover in the Izu Islands is relatively high throughout the year. At Ozato on Hachijo-jima, mean annual cloudiness amounts to 78 per cent (loo per cent represents a completely overcast sky). The month of greatest overcast is June, with a mean maximum of 87 per cent. The least cloudy month is November, with an average of 71 per cent. The average number of cloudy days (more than 80 per cent §ej per year is 205 at the Ozato station. June has 21, such days, while November represents the other extreme with only lz. The average number of clear days (less than 20 per cent overcast) per year is variously reported as between 6 and 9. Even November, the clearest month, averages only one full day of clear skies. There is sunshine during 38 per cent of all daylight hours. Fog is fairly common in the northern islands, but rather rare in the southern islands of the chain. Its occurrence is most probable between the first of March and the end of July, but on Hachijo-jima the number of days with fog averages only 2.9 per year. Data on cloudiness, visibility, and the frequency of fog on Hachijo-jima are presented in the following table, which summarizes observations made at the Ozato station over a period of 23 unspecified years:

      The skies over the Bonins are comparatively less cloudy. The mean annual cloudiness at the Omura station is reported as 65 per cent, with an average of 11.0 cloudy days per year. The month of least overcast is October, with 57 per cent; the cloudiest month is May, with an average of 78 per cent. Each major change in wind direction is accompanied by an increase in cloudiness. Thus, the principal maximum — in May — is associated with the setting in of southerly winds, and during this month the number of cloudy days is about 19 on Chichi-jima. Thereafter the degree of cloudiness diminisnes, and July is one of the least cloudy months of the year. The number of clear days is uniformly low, and the average number of such days per year is only about 20. Clear days are most frequent in the last half of the year, but even in October the average number per month does not exceed 3. Observations made at the Omura station from the time of its establishment until the end of lº28 show that there is sunshine during 53 per cent of the daylight hours. In general, fog does not present any serious problem in this area, and there is reported to be an average of only l;8 hours of fog per year on Chichi-jima. However, dense fog is reported eastward of the islands and also on Kita-iwo-jima in the Volcano group. Average conditions of cloudiness and visibility prevailing on Chichi-jima, based upon 23 unspecified years of observations at the Omura station, are summarized in the following table:

      Light fogs are reported to occur on Marcus Island in September and October.

      Winds. The Izu Islands, like the Bonins, lie within a borderline region which is influenced by both the Asiatic ràthnsoons and northeast trades. The winds experienced in the Izus, however, are far stronger than those in the Bonins and there are more than ten times as many gales. Westerly winds are the most prevalent throughout the year. From December through March, westerly and northwesterly winds predominate. These are the strongest of all winds during the year, averaging from 21 to 21, knots during most of this period, often freshening to force 7 (Beaufort: 32-38 knots), and at times attaining gale force (33-5. knots). From April through June, northeasterly, westerly, and southwesterly winds are prominent, with an average velocity of from 8 to 18 knots. In July, westerly and southwesterly winds of still less strength begin to dominate. In August winds from this quarter, averaging less than 13 knots, are most frequent. The latter part of the summer, however, is a period of highly variable winds. In September southerly winds become most common; in October winds from the east and northeast, averaging almost force. 5 (19 to 21, knots), tend to predominate. The winter monsoon sets in during November, when westerly winds begin to prevail except in the northernmost islands lying close to Honshu where northerly winds prevail during all the winter months. Throughout the islands, winds from southerly quarters are associated with bad weather and sudden squalls, while westerly winds usually bring clear weather. Calms are rare throughout the Izus; they almost never occur in the winter months, but are infrequently experienced during the summer, when gales are likewise less common. A heavy swell from the southeast, called "doyonami," appears frequently, even during the summer, and is especially prominent from Nii-jima northward. The following table gives the mean wind directions (in percent ages) and the average number of days with gales at Ozato on Hachijo-jima, according to observations over periods of 5 and 6 years, respectively:

      In the Bonins, winds blow rather evenly from every quarter, with those from the east and northeast generally predominating. Calms, which are more common than in most neighboring areas, occur with maximum frequency from June through August. In the summer southerly winds usually prevail, those from the southwest being prominent during April, May, and June. The usual monsoon period is from July to September, with southeasterly winds, infrequent storms, and calm seas ordinarily characterizing the weather. In September, and sometimes earlier, the wind shifts to the east and northeast, continuing

through November. The northwest winter monsoon appears in December and prevails through March, bringing the strongest winds and causing rough seas. Northeast winds often appear about the end of March or in April when the winter monsoon dies away, and these usually bring good weather. The westerly winds which follow in May are light and variable, and usually bring more settled weather. Wind velocity is ordinarily rather low in this area throughout the year. It is least from April through November, the minimum average velocity of 3 knots being recorded in July. From December through March it is greatest, the maximum average speed of 6 knots being reached in February. Gales, which are infrequent, are most likely to occur between September and December. Mean wind directions (in percentages), as observed at the Umura station over a period of 6 unspecified years, are shown in the table which follows:

      The following table presents data on mean prevailing winds, average wind velocities, and average number of days with gales at Omura on Chichi-jima. The statistics on prevailing winds cover two periods: the years lºo2-01, and the years 1922-36. The data on wind velocity are for lº 37 only, and those concerning the frequency of gales are based upon a period of 6 unspecified years of observations:

      At Marcus Island, northeasterly winds usually prevail during the winter months, while winds from the eastern to southern quarters predominate in the summer. The speed of the wind seldom exceeds force 5.

      Storms. Thunderstorms occur occasionally in the Izu Islands, averaging l’? days a year at Hachijo-jima. The months of greatest storm frequency aré from July through November, while May and June are the months of least occurrence. Gales are relatively common in all months, but most frequent during March. According to observations made at the Ozato station on Hachijo-jima over an unspecified 2O-year period, the average number of days with thunderstorms per year and per month is as follows:

      The Izus lie in the customary typhoon path, except during July when the track shifts more to the north. However, only the most northerly islands lie in this path during August and September. Since August, September, and October are the months of greatest typhoon frequency in the northern Pacific, the result is that the se disturbances are relatively rare in the southern islands of the group, and October is the month of their most probable occurrence there. However, typhoons often pass close enough to the islands to cause high winds in any month. #ven during relatively calm periods, dirty squalls are experienced, particularly from Nii-jima northward.

      Windstorms and thunderstorms are experienced less often in the Bonins, and when occurring they arise and fall very quickly. During September and October, storms usually come from the northeast, with sporadic gales from the northwest, while in April they come as a rule from the southwest. At Chichi-jima, the average number of days with thunderstorms is only about 8 per year, but the number of stormy days is about l”. Thunderstorms are most likely to occur in July, August, and October; they are least probable from December through February. Observations at the Omura station on the annual and monthly average number of days with thunderstorms (over an unspecified 2O-year period), and on the mean number of stormy days (over the period 1925-37) are summarized in the following table:

      Typhoons, often accompanied by tidal waves, floods, and earthquakes (see 113), occur in the Bonins more frequently during autumn and winter than in other months, though such storms have been known to affect the area in every month. Extremely violent ones occur on an average of once every one and a half to two years, usually during September, October, or November. However, the usual typhoon track in these months lies somewhat westward of the islands. From May through August typhoons occasionally pass near enough to the group to cause southeast gales. The following table, based on observations at the Omura station over an indeterminate period of years, shows the mean number of typhoons affecting the region in the first, middle, and last lo-day periods of each month throughout the year:

      At Marcus Island, typhoons are reported to be fairly common in October.

113. Geology and Topography

      Geological Structure. The Izus and the Bonins (including. Naka-no-tori jima, the Volcano Islands, and Marcus) comprise 14 islands or island groups. Except for Marcus, which is a triangular-shaped coral island, the islands are of volcanic origin and formation. The Izu Islands are the southward continuation of the Fuji volcanic chain which extends from the Japan Sea across the middle of Honshu into the Pacific Ocean. The Bonins are variously described as a further continuation of the Fuji chain or as an independent chain. Many of the islands, such as O-shima, Miyake-jima, Tori-jima, and the Volcano Islands, reveal continuing volcanic activity in one of several forms: the pouring forth of steam and sulphurous fumes from fissures and vents, the appearance of new cones, and eruptions of varying intensity. On almost all the islands are found one or more principal craters, the floors or flanks of which are often pock-marked with subsidiary cones or explosive craters. On several of the islands, notably Hachijo-jima, Chichijima, Iwo-jima, and Minami-iwo-jima, earthquake shocks are frequent.

      All of the islands are small, the largest (O-shima) being ten and a half miles in length. They are rugged and either hilly or mountainous. Highest elevations on individual islands range from 500 to nearly 3,000 feet in the Izu Islands, from 400 to l,500 feet in the Bonins proper, and from 600 feet to over 3,000 feet in the Volcano Islands. Level land is scarce and is confined chiefly to Nii-jima and Hachijo-jima, although there are medium-sized coastal or valley lowlands on Chichi-jima and Haha-jima. Coasts, rising behind narrow rocky beaches, are steep and forbidding. Most of the islands have relatively straight coast lines; only Kozu-shima, the Beechey Islands, and Haha-jima have marked indentations. Offshore there are numerous rocks and rocky islets, as well as fringing reefs.

      The principal islands and island groups are listed below from north to south, with the essential geographic facts about each. All distances are approximate.

      O-shima. This island is situated at 34° 47" N, 139° 22' E, 65 miles SW of Tokyo, and 13 miles N of To-jima. Largest of the Izu Islands, it is oval-shaped and approximately six miles wide and ten and a half miles long. The chief topographic feature of the island is Mihara Yama, an active volcano, the cone of which is 2,477 feet high. The main crater of this cone is filled with a pool of incandescent lava some 800 feet in width. In clear weather the reflection of this lava on the white cloud of vapor which hovers over the summit forms, a landmark visible for many miles. A period of eruptions, starting in 1912 and continuing for three years, filled the crater nearly to its brim with newly-erupted lava. Since 1915 there have been incessant rumblings and vapor emissions, occasional volcanic earthquakes and ash precipitations, but only minor eruptions (in 1934, and 1938). On the NE and SW slopes of the cone there are breaches in the wall of the main crater from which flows of lava extend to the sea. In general, however, the W slope is comparatively regular with the exception of shallow radial valleys. The E slope is more irregular and is furrowed by deep valleys cut by the temporary streams of the rainy season and by the one permanent stream of the island. The coast is characterized by precipitous cliffs, although there are long sandy beaches on the W and S coasts of the island.

      Nii-jima. This island is situated at 34° 22' N and 139° 14' E,20 miles S of O-shima and 9 mile's NE of Kozu-shima. The island is two miles wide and seven miles long. From E or W, the elevations at each end appear to be two separate islands. Between the l,404 foot summit at the N end and the 985 foot summit at the S end lies a lowland of coarse gravel deposits which forms the principal cultivated area of the island. Except for this central portion and a small area in the SE, the shore line consists of steep cliffs. There are sandy beaches along the SE and SW shores and also along Awai Ura, a small inlet at the N end of the E coast. There are several offshore islands and many offshore rocks, the more important of which are described below.

      To-jima is a small cone-shaped island one and a half miles in diameter, situated at 34° 31' N and 139° 17' E, six miles N of Nii-jima. Its cone rises to an elevation of l,664 feet. The circumference of the island consists of steep cliffs, and the only landing place is a rocky beach on the N side.

      Udone-jima is a small uninhabited grass-covered island located at 34° 28' N and 139° 18' E midway between To-jima and Nii-jima. Its maximum elevation is 686 feet.

      Jinai-jima lies one mile to the W of Nii-jima. It reacnes a height of 247 feet and is grass-covered except for a pine-covered peninsula at the S end.

      Haya-jima is a small steep-sided and flat-topped island off the S tip of Nii-jima.

      Shikine-jima is a small irregularly-shaped island situated at 34° 22' N and 139° 13° E, two miles off the SW shore of Nii-jima. It is one mile wide, two miles long, and reaches a maximum elevation of 335 feet. Hot springs are found among the rocks on the N and W sides of the island. The coast consists of alternating cliffs and lowlands, and there are numerous rocks offshore.

      Taibusa-iwa is a rocky islet 180 feet long lying directly off the SW shore of Shikine-jima.

      Kozu-shima. This island is located at 34° 12' N, 139° 09' E, 7 1/2 miles SW of Nii-jima and 20 miles NNW of Miyake-jima. It is three miles wide and four miles long. In the center an extinct volcano, Tenjo Yama, rises to an elevation of l,871 feet, and several small cones rise from its flanks. The coast consists of cliffs and rocky beaches with short stretches of sandy beach along the SE and W shores. Numerous rocks and islets lie offshore. The most important of these are two rocky islets lying close together, about 1,000 yards off the central part of the E coast of Kozu-shima. The islets, which are called Tadanae-jima, are 270 and 281 feet high, have cliff-bound shores, and are wooded.

      Miyake-jima. This island is situated at 34° 06' N, 139° 30' E, 33 miles S of O-shima and 11 miles NNW of Mikura-jima. Round, and six miles in diameter, it is the third largest of the Izu Islands. The volcano, which rises to a height of 2,668 feet in the center of the island, erupted on July 12, 1940, and remained active for nearly a month. Although the contours of the island were not changed fundamentally, a new central cone was formed and a lava flow, coalescing with a small volcanic cone which rose from the sea floor, filled in Akabakyo Bay and formed two new beaches along the NE shore. The NW and SE flanks of the volcano are steeper and more deeply eroded than the others. Several subsidiary cones project from the NE and SE flanks of the central cone, and there are small hills at its base. Although there is little level land, there are extensive wooded and cultivated areas. The coast consists chiefly of steep cliffs and rocky shores, with a few short stretches of sandy beach. There are a number of small offshore rocks, the most important of which are: Onohara-jima — a group of high uninhabited rocks six miles SW of Miyake-jima; Zeni-su — an uninhabited reef consisting of a number of rocks rising abruptly from two small shoals, situated 39 miles SW of Miyake-jima.

      Mikura-jima. This island is situated at 33° 53' N, 139° 37' E, 11 miles SSE of Miyake-jima an miles NNW of Hachijo-jima. The island is nearly round and has a diameter of three miles. O-Yama, the volcanic cone at the center, reaches a height of 2,798 feet and has a horseshoe-shaped crater opening to the S. The sides of the volcano are cut by deep radial valleys. On the SW flank and close to the shore is a subsidiary cone, Akazawa Yama. The coast is formed of rocky cliffs varying from 300 to l,600 feet in height.

      Inamba-jima is a small uninhabited and inaccessible islet situated at 33° 39' N and 139° 18' E, 19 miles SW of Mikura-jima and 36 miles NW of Hachijo-jima. The islet, which has an elevation of 244 feet, is flat-topped and covered with grass. The E coast consists of a steep cliff, while the W side slopes slightly.

      Hachijo-jima (also called Fatsio and Fasisio). This island is located at 33° 05' N and 139° 46' E, 150 miles S of Tokyo, 42 miles SSE of Mikura-jima, and 35 miles N of Aoga-shima. The island, four and one-half miles wide and nine miles long, consists of the cones of two extinct volcanoes separated by a central lowland. Nishi Yama, in the NW part of the island, is a symmetrical truncated cone 2,812 feet high with a circular crater l,300 feet in diameter. Within this crater rises Naka Yama, a small cone. Nishi Yama has been called "Hachijo-jima Fuji" because of its resemblance to the famous mountain on Honshu in Japan proper. In the SE part of the island, Mihara Yama rises to a flat-topped summit of 2,298 feet. This inactive volcano has been modified by erosion, and around its base there are several small hills and a l,464 foot subsidiary summit, Mishotai Yama. The central lowland connecting Nishi Yama and Mihara Yama has an average elevation of 90 feet and is accessible from short low beaches on either side. Elsewhere the coast is composed of steep cliffs varying in height from 200 to 590 feet, with only a narrow sandy or rocky strand at the foot of the cliffs. There are a number of rocks offshore. Although Nishi Yama has not erupted since 1605, earthquake shocks are frequent: one occurred in 1929, four in 1930, five in 1931, and two in 1932.

      Ko-jima, lying two and one-half miles W of Hachijo-jima, is separated from the larger island by a deep channel. Small and oval-shaped, it has a central peak 2,023 feet high. The E and W sides have steep cliffs, but the NW and SE sides slope fairly gently to the sea.

      Aoga-shima (also called Aogo-shima). This small island is situated at 32° 28’ N, 139° 46' E, 35 miles due S of Hachijo-jima. The island, one mile wide and two and one-half miles long, consists of a composite volcano with a truncated come and a circular crater (Ikeno Sawa) from which arises a smaller, more recent cone with a crater 600 feet in diameter. The NW side of the old crater, which has an elevation of l,390 feet, is the highest point on the island. Although there are few trees, the soil is comparatively fertile, and the more level portions of the island, including the interior of the old crater, are under cultivation. The coasts are steep, but there is a rocky landing place at Mikono Ura, a cove on the NE coast.

      Central Islets. These uninhabited rocky islets between Aoga-shima and the Parry Islands, are described below.

      Bayonnaise Rocks (also called Beyoneisu Retsugan) is a group of rocks situated at 31° 55' N, 139° 54' E, about 37 miles of Aoga-shima. Submarine volcanoes have been reported near the rocks, and it is probable that the ocean floor in this vicinity undergoes constant change.

      Smith Island (Sumisu-jima) comprises a group of rocks situated at 31° 27' N, 140° 02" E, about 34 miles SE of Bayonnaise Rocks.

      Tori-jima (also_called Bird, Ponafidin, and St. Peter) is a volcanic island situated at 30° 39' N, 140° 19° E, 58 miles S of Smith Island and 230 miles NW, of Futami Harbor at Chichi-jima in the Ogasawara district. The volcano, roughly circular, at its base, has a diameter of about one and a half miles. Its triple summit, which attains, a maximum elevation of 1,516 feet, is seamed and fissured in every conceivable way. A quiescent period of 37 years suddenly came to an end in August, 1939, when volcanic activity occurred and continued for a period of four months. The few inhabitants of the island were compelled to leave, and none had returned by October, 1942. During the eruption, a new cone was formed on the W wall of Komochi Yama, one of the oldest summits, and the contours of the island were considerably altered. Except for a portion of the NW shore, steep lava cliffs fringe the island. As a result of the lava flow which accompanied the 1939 eruption, no landing place now exists.

      Sofu-gan (also called Lot's Wife) is a black pinnacle rock located at 29° 49' N, 140° 21' E,21' E, about 40 miles S of Tori-jima.

      Naka-no-tori-jima. The only known details regarding this island are its location (30° 51' N latitude, 154° 16' E longitude), area (2.13 square kilometers), and the fact that for political and judicial purposes it is administered from Chichi-jima in the Bonins (see 223 and 226).

      Parry Islands (also called Muko-jima Retto). Situated at 27° 40' N, 142° 10' E, 180 miles S of Sofu-gan and 21 miles directly N of the Beechey Islands, the Parry Islands form the northernmost group of the Bonins. The islands extend over an area 7 miles in breadth and 21 miles in length (NW-SE). The group includes five very small islands and a number of islets and offshore rocks. These are described individually below.

      Kita-no-jima, the northernmost island of the group, is 400 yards wide,800 yards long, and has a maximum elevation of 167 feet.

      Muko-jima (also called Harrau Island), the largest island of the group, lies two miles SE of Kita-no-jima. The island has hills nearly 300 feet high but is less rugged than the other islands of the group. Small rocky islets lie offshore, but there is a small beach and harbor on the S coast.

      Hari-no-iwa, located l,500 yards SE of Muko-jima, is a long narrow rocky islet rising to a height of 444 feet at its N end. This northern elevation presents a columnar shape from all directions and, when seen from NW of Muko-jima, it is sometimes mistaken for a peak on the latter island.

      Nakodo-jima lies two miles SE of Hari-no-iwa. The island, somewhat longer than it is wide, has a NW-SE axis, at both extremities of which are located sharp peaks. Byobu Yama in the SE is 509 feet high, and Tsurugi Yama in the NW end of the island towers 398 feet, with a conspicuous rock on its summit. Steep cliffs form the shore line, with few offshore rocks except on the S shore where there is a small harbor.

      Yome-jima (also called Kater Island), the southernmost island of the Parry group, lies about 8 miles SE of Nakodo-jima and 19 miles N of Mago-jima in the Beechey Islands. The island is rocky, has an elevation of a little over 300 feet, and the shores, except for two beaches on the S side, are steep cliffs. Landing places exist in the small open bay on the NE side and on the beaches facing Mae-jima, a small islet about 400 yards to the SW.

      Beechey Islands (also called Chichi-jima Retto). This group of islands is situated at 27° 05' N, 142° 12" E, approximately 523 miles S of Yokohama and 834 miles N of Apra (Guam); they are about midway between the Parry and Bailey Islands, the other principal island groups of the Bonins proper. The Beechey Islands are of volcanic composition and extend over an area 6 miles in width and 12 miles in length (N-S). There are eight islands, as well as a number of other very small islets. Earthquake shocks are common throughout these islands: there were 8 in 1929, 11 in 1930, 4 in 1931, and 7 in 1932. The principal islands of the Beechey group are described individually below.

      Mago-jima (also called Kakari-jima and Kita-jima ) is a small uninhabited island located about 800 yards N of Ototo-jima. It has an elevation of 440 feet and is bordered by precipitous cliffs.

      Nishi-no-jima (also called Disappointment Island and Rosario Island) is a very small flat grass-covered island, situated at 27° 16' N, 140° 51' E,80 miles W of Chichi-jima. The island is 200 yards wide,700 yards long (N-S), and has an elevation of about 80 feet. The beaches are sandy except in the NW where there is a cliff.

      Ototo-jima (also called Stapleton Island, North Island, and Nord Island) is a barren island with many hills, one of which rises to a maximum elevation of 766 feet in the S portion. It is one mile wide and two and a half miles long (N-S). The shores are

chiefly cliffs, but there are some beaches on the W side. There are several small streams along the E shore between Tobo and Nihon Points.

      Ani-jima (also called Buckland Island and Hog Island), a rocky uninhabited island with steep cliffs along its coast line, is located between Ototo-jima and Chichi-jima. Narrow straits separate it from both. Ani-jima Strait, separating the island from Chichi-jima, is 500 yards wide and deep enough for naval vessels. The island is nearly two miles wide, four miles long (NW-SE), and its interior hills reach a maximum elevation of over 800 feet. An extensive valley widens out into Takinoura Bay on the SW coast, and there are four small inlets on the NE coast. Hayotan-jima (also called Piki Island and, erroneously, Little Goat Island) lies half a mile off the W coast of Ani-jima and comprises two flat grass-covered islets joined by a rock-fringed isthmus. On the SW side of these islets there is a curiously-shaped flat-topped rock which rises 90 feet in height.

      Nishi-jima (also called Yagi-shima and Little Goat Island) lies a little over one mile W of Sujiwa Point on the W coast of Ani-jima. The island, which attains an elevation or 325 feet, is bordered by cliffs and fringed with rocks.

      Chichi-jima (also called Peel Island), the most important and the second largest island in the Bonins, is situated at 27° 04' N, 142° 12' E, 20 miles N of Haha-jima in the Bailey group. The island is two and a half miles wide, five miles long (N-S), and has an area of eight and a half square miles. The terrain is rugged and there are many hills and valleys. There are a number of mountainous peaks, including Funami Yama, Mikazuki Yama, Chuosan, Horaisan, Shigure Yama, and Asahi Yama. The latter rises to l,050 feet, the highest elevation on the island. The plains are few but their soil is usually fertile. The island is composed generally of trap rock intermingled with amygdaloid and green stone. Basaltic dikes pass through the beds of sand, scoria, and cinders. Strata of old lava are seen where deep sections of rock are exposed. Iron pyrites abound in many places, and in the S extremity there is a bed of limestone. The coast is greatly indented, and the S and E shores are mostly precipitous, though beaches occur at some bay heads. The N coast is relatively low. Futami Bay on the W coast provides the best harbor and anchorage in the Bonins. Many trees and considerable vegetation are found along the river valleys. There are several islands, together with many islets and rocks, offshore.

      Higashi-jima (also called Sandy Beach Island), situated about one mile off the NE coast of Chichi-jima in the Ani-jima Strait, is a rocky uninhabited island which attains a maximum elevation of 299 feet.

      Minami-jima (also called Knorr Island) is a rocky island located about a half mile offshore from the extreme SW point of Chichi-jima. It reaches 195 feet in height, is bordered by steep cliffs and has many rocks fringing its coasts.

      Bailey Islands (also called Haha-jima Retto and Coffin Group). This is the southernmost group of islands in the Bonins proper and is located at 26° 40' N, 142° 09" E, about 18 miles S of the Beechey Islands and 82 miles NE of Kita-iwo-jima in the Volcano Islands. The group consists of one large island, five small islands, and several islets and rocks. The group extends over an area 5 miles in width, 11 miles in length (N-S). The more important of the Bailey Islands are described individually below.

      Haha-jima (also called Hillsboro Island and Coffin Island), the northernmost island of the group, is one and a half miles in width and nearly nine miles in length (NNW-SSE). A mountain range, which traverses the island in a NW-SE direction, rises from an elevation of l,000 feet in the N to l,500 feet in the central part but decreases to less than 500 feet in the S. This ridge lies somewhat closer to the E than to the W coast, and the E slopes are universally steeper than those on the W side. Several s-reams have carved deep valleys and formed coastal lowlands in the N portion of the island. The less rugged S portion of the island Contains most of the cultivated lands, which are more extensive than on Chichi-jima. Haha-jima is largely composed of volcanic rocks of an andesitic nature, with calcareous rocks next in abundance. The coast has many bays and inlets, and the waters offshore contain many rocks, reefs, and shoals, particularly on the NW and SW sides. The larger beach areas are to be found on the W side. Okimura Bay, on the SW coast, provides good anchorage and has an inner and outer harbor. Okimura, the principal village in the Haha-jima district, lies at the head of this harbor. From Minami Zaki, the SW point of the island, reefs and islets extend a distance of two and a half miles in a SW direction to Hira-shima. One of the se islets, Katsuotori-jima, lying 600 yards SE of Minami Zaki, is grass-covered with trees growing on its summit and steep cliffs bordering its coast.

      Plymouth Island (also called Muko-shima ) is a small circular island lying two and a half miles SW of Haha-jima and one mile NW of Hira-shima. Its highest peak, flattopped Yashida Yama, has an elevation of lºl,5 feet and is located at the N end of the island; its reef-fringed coast is steep, but there are occasional beaches of sand or rock.

Hira-shima is a narrow and flat island at the S end of the chain of islets, rocks, and reefs which extend for a distance of two and a half miles beyond the S tip of Hahajima. The surface of this island is undulating and rises at the W end to an elevation of 196 feet.

      Mei-jima is a small triangular-shaped island, located nearly five miles ESE of Hira-shima. The island is rugged, rising to an elevation of 367 feet on its E side and having a steep coast except for a small beach on the W shore. Rocks, snoals, and reefs are found offshore, particularly in the N and S. The channel separating the island from Imoto-jima is 500 yards wide and deep enough for any naval vessel.

      Imoto-jima (also called Kelly Island) is an oval-shaped island 1,500 yards in length, situated one-half mile SW of Mei-jima. Its coast is steep, and a central peak rises to an elevation of over 700 feet. Although densely covered with trees, cultivated land has been observed on the hillsides. A few landing places occur on the W side and sea caves on the S and E coasts. Off the SW coast lies Tori-jima, a small islet 211, feet high with a tunnel extending completely through it (E to W).

      Ane-jima (also ca11ed Perry Island) is the southernmost island of the Bailey group. It is l,000 yards wide, one mile long (N-S), and lies one mile S of Hira-shima, from which it is separated by the Ane-jima Strait. Ridges extending para11el to the E and W shore enclose a central va11ey. Elevations attaining nearly l,00 feet occur in the S and W portions. Vegetation consists of short grass and a few trees. The island is bounded by steep cliffs and thickly fringed by rocks. At the N end, however, access may be gained to the central va11ey through Kita Ura. A small rocky grass-covered islet, Kita-tori-jima, 111 feet high, lies about 500 yards off Kita Ura on the NE coast. Close by the S extremity of the island lies another very small islet, Minami-tori-jima (not to be confused with Marcus Island, sometimes also called Minami-tori-jima).

      Volcano Islands (also called Kazan Retto and Sulphur Islands). This group comprises three islands, which extend a distance of 86 miles from 25° 26' N, 141° 16' E to 24° 14' N, 141° 28' E. These islands are described individually below.

      Kita-iwo-jima (also called San Alessandro Island) is an elliptical-shaped island situated at 25° 26' N, 141° 16' E, 82 miles SW of Ane-jima in the Bailey Islands. The island is a volcanic cone, the summit of which, instead of being a pointed peak as is frequently the case for volcanic islands, takes the form of a ridge extending in a NNW-SSE direction along the major axis of the island. The ridge reaches its highest elevation in a peak (Sakakiga Mine) in the S. Another peak (Aono Mine) near the N coast is 1,716 feet high. The lateral slopes of the ridge are deeply dissected by ravines, of which the Ishino Valley between the N and S peaks is the largest and most striking. The steep slopes of the ridge end abruptly in sea cliffs, some as high as 1,300 feet. Below, and fringing most of the coast, are reefs and rocky gravel beaches which shelve seaward gradually and without terraces. There are two small villages on the island, Ishino on the E central shore, and Nishimura on the NW shore. There are a few trees and the lower lands are under cultivation. A submarine volcano (Funka Asane) lies two and a half miles W of the island. The water in the vicinity of Funka Asane is discolored, and the odor, from the bubbles of sulphur gas which rise to the surface, can be smelled at distances ranging up to two miles.

      Iwo-jima (also called Naka-iwa-to, Io-shima, and Sulphur Island) is a gourdshaped island with the neck to the SW. The island is five miles long (NE-SW) and situated at 24° 48' N, 141° 18' E, 22 miles due S of Kita-iwo-jima. The island is formed by two volcanoes, Šuribachi Yaha on the sº end and Moto Yama on the NW end, which are connected by a narrow neck of lowland. Moto Yama is a flat-topped, dome-shaped hill 358 feet high, which is completely surrounded by uplifted wave-cut terraces except in the SW. These lowland terraces terminate abruptly in cliffs, but there is another series of inland terraces above the cliffs which give the island the appearance from the sea of the usual flat-topped island formed by raised coral reefs. On the SW side of Moto Yama, a conical hill rises above the surrounding ground, which gently slopes to the connecting lowland area; on the N side there are several subsidiary peaks, Furu Yama, Nidan Iwa, and Osaka Yama, all under lº?)0 feet elevation. Suribachi Yama on the SW end of the is land is an extinct volcano with a funnel-shaped crater and a truncated cone, which reaches a height of 51.6 feet. Mota Yama has more than 20 vents or fissures, some of which emit steam and sulphurous vapors visible some distance at sea. The N portion of the island attains a width of two and a half miles, and is rocky and barren, with cliffs and ledges offshore. The connecting lowland, called "Chidoriga Hara," is composed of volcanic sand dunes, bordered by beaches on both sides. The island is composed of andesitic rocks showing a distinct alkaline tendency. The soil is dry and the island is mostly barren.

      Minami-iwo-jima (also called San Augustino Island) is a small circular island, one mile in diameter, situated at 24° 14' N, 141° 28' E, 38 miles SSW of Iwo-jima, and 300 miles NW of Pajaros, the northernmost island of the Marianas. The summit of Minamiiwo-jima reaches an elevation of 3,181 feet. Steep-sloping sides of the island end ab-

ruptly in precipitous cliffs at the coastline. There are no lowlands and the few beachlike areas are rocky. Reefs and shoals border the W, NW, and NE coast S.

      Marcus Island (also called Minami-tori-jima and Weeks Island). This is the easternmost Island of the Izu and Bonin group and is situated at 24° 17' N, 153° 58' E, 640 miles E of Chichi-jima. It is a small triangular-shaped coral island with a fringing reef surrounding the entire coast. There are only two boat passages through the reef, one on the central S side and the other on the NW side. Beaches line the entire coast, and the interior is heavily wooded.

114. Hydrography

      Sources. Detailed hydrographic information is contained in the "Asiatic Pilot," Volume II (H.0. 123), pages 150 to 175, and on charts 5257 and 5597 of the United States Hydrographic Office. Since these sources are widely available, no attempt will be made to restate the information here.

      Currents and Tides. Except near Marcus Island, the usual set of the ocean currents in this area is northeasterly, but a number of factors cause frequent deviation from this course. The islands themselves often induce current deflection. In addition, numerous eddies, characteristic of great currents like the Japan Stream which flows along the west side of the islands, are particularly active. It is consequently not unusual to encounter a current set that is opposite to the direction anticipated, especially among the northern islands. Also of particular influence on the currents are the prevailing winds, which shift frequently during the different seasons of the year and are capricious at any time (see 112). Heavy current rips occur commonly, especially near the many islands and rocks, and such rips are often mistaken for shoals. The currents in the vicinity of Marcus isiana are exceedingly variable, but in general they flow eastward. Throughout the area, the velocities of the currents range, as a rule, from one and a half to three knots, although swifter speeds sometimes prevail close to shore.

      The height of tides averages from two and a half to five feet. Surf is usually heavy during the cool months, particularly on the northern and western sides of the islands. Strong 'Surf beats on all sides of the reef surrounding Marcus Island, especially during the months from September to April.

      Natural Harbors and Anchorages. In the Izus and Bonins there are only two natural harbors worthy of mention. Habu Harbor on the southeastern coast of O-shima is a body of water l,000 feet in diameter which is connected with the ocean by so narrow a channel that it is almost landlocked. Steamships of 200 tons have been known to anchor there. Futami Harbor on Chichi-jima is protected on three sides by mountains and is large enough to provide excellent anchorage for at least eight large ships. For a description of harbor facilities, see 291.

      Generally the contours of most of the islands and of the ocean bottom directly offshore merely afford partially-protected anchorages and roadsteads. A summary of available information on anchorages for particular islands and island groups, listed in order from north to south, follows:

      Inland Waters. One or more 'small but permanent streams are found on each of the following islands: O-shima, Miyake-jima, Mikura-jima, Muko-jima, Ototo-jima, Chichijima, and Haha-jima. During the rainy season there are also many temporary streams on the iarger islands. Small springs are reported for Shikine-jima, Aoga-shima, Yome-jima, Chichi-jima, and Iwo-jima. There are two permanent lakes on Miyake-jima and one on Mikurajima. During the rainy season enough water collects in the extinct crater of Mizutamari near Tsubota on Miyake-jima to form a fairly sizable swamp. For further description of inland waters in the islands, see 121.

12. RES0URCES

121. Water Supply

      Permanent streams furnish water in some quantity only on O-shima, Miyake-jima, Mikura-jima, Hachijo-jima, and Chichi-jima. Those at Ogiura on the latter island have particularly good and plentiful volumes of water. A few permanent streams or Brooks on Muko-jima, Ototo-jima, and Haha-jima furnish only small quantities of dirty brackish water. Temporary streams appear on all the larger islands during the rainy season, but their water supply fails very quickly during the dry season.

      On Kozu-shima, Miyake-jima, and Chichi-jima there are a few springs which yield moderate quantities of good water. Yome-jima has several springs, but the water is of poor quality. There are warm springs on Shikine-jima, Aoga-shima, and Iwo-jima, but the quality of the water has not been reported.

      Artificial Sources. A few good wells have been dug on O-shima, Nii-jima, Kozushima, Muko-jima, Chichi-jima, and Kita-iwo-jima. There are also wells on Hachijo-jima and Marcus Island, but they furnish only brackish water. For their main supply of potable water, however, the islanders throughout the are a depend upon the collection and storage of rainwater. Numerous private and small communal cisterns have been built; the latter are reported for O-shima, Nii-jima, Kozu-shima, and Miyake-jima. Various types of tanks, both concrete and metal, are becoming increasingly common throughout all the islands. Water from streams, cisterns, or tanks is sometimes conveyed into houses by means of bamboo or iron conduits. A few modest public waterworks exist, the most elaborate being located at Kozu village (see 281).

      Available information on the water sources (other than private rainwater catchments) and the water supply for particular islands is summarized below:

      Kita-iwo-Jima; wells at Nishi village used as chief source of drinking water.

      Iwo-jima: warm spring 900 yards SW of Hiraiwa Point.

      Marcus Island: one well located W of the settlement, furnishes brackish water.

122. Soils

      Extent and Quality of Soils. Since practically all the islands are rugged and mountainous, areas having sufficient soil for cultivation are limited in the main to the craters of extinct volcanoes, the gentler mountain slopes, and the few plains and valleys. Although there are thick forests on some of the larger northern islands and on Chichi-jima, sizable regions and even some entire islands have only very thin soil that supports nothing more than grass and shrubs. In general, only the inhabited islands have relatively extensive areas of fertile soil, while, the smaller uninhabited islands are usually quite barren. As a rule, the soil on the various islands is not deep enough to retain any considerable amount of water, and seasonal rains, which wash the soil into valleys and the sea, prevent the accumulation of thick layers of topsoil except under the most favorable circumstances.

      Volcanic Soils. The Izu and Volcano Islands are of volcanic origin and their soils consist primarily of decomposed volcanic rock overlaid with vegetable humus. There is little specific information available as to soils in the Izu Islands, although it is reported that some of the fertile areas on To-jima, Miyake-jima, and Hachijo-jima are "clay-like" in quality. Presumably this soil is the usual sort of laterite formed by decomposition of volcanic rock, rich in oxides of iron and hydroxides of aluminum and low in silica content. Certainly it is particularly well suited to the cultivation of taro and yams. It varies in depth from one foot on the higher land to as much as four or five feet in the lowlands.

      The Volcano Islands are formed of tufa rock and have a thin topsoil composed predominantly of volcanic detritus. This soil, like that of the Bonins, is well suited to the production of sugar cane.

      Coralline-Volcanic Soils. The Bonins are also of volcanic origin but they have a more complex soil made up of a kind of andesitic lava (called "Boninite"), sedimentary agglomerate tufaceous rocks, and layers of coral limestone. Some of the smaller islands have been eroded almost to sea level and have only a very thin poor soil at best. On the larger islands, however, weathering and other natural processes have produced a predominantly red clayish laterite soil of some depth. In the rich one-half mile wide and one-mile long plain bordering Futami Bay on Chichi-jima, this laterite has mixed with dark vegetable mold, fine sand, disintegrated coral, and marine shell to produce a rich fertile layer, sometimes having a depth of five or six feet — though usually not more than two feet. This layer rests on a bed of ancient coral rock which in turn is laid on taprock. Similar soils exist elsewhere in the valleys of Chichi-jima.

      Coralline Soils. Marcus Island, a triangular-shaped coral atoll, has the only soil in the islands that is primarily coral line in composition. There are no specific reports on its fertility or depth, although it is known to support a fairly dense cover of vegetation.

123. Minerals

      Phosphates. Phosphates have been mined in small quantities on Marcus Island.

      Sulphur. Sulphur is found, sometimes in a free state, on Iwo-jima. It is of good quality but the deposits are relatively small.

      Sand, Gravel, and Stone. Golden-yellow crystals of pyroxene have been gathered on the shore at Obama Beach on Plylloutin Islanu, and fine white sand nas been gathered in the Beechey Islands. This sand was formerly exported to Tokyo for use in plaster on living-room walls, but no such export was reported in 1936, the latest year for which figures are available. Small quantities of gravel are produced in the O-shima and Ogasawara districts. Semi-precious stones, mainly chalcedony and agate, have been gathered in the Beechey Islands, although no production or export of such stones was report-

ed for 1936. Other important stone products in the area include andesite (Nii-jima), tufa rock (Ogasawara district), and volcanic ash (O-shima district). For details on mining and quarrying operations, see 324.

      Izu Islands. Although rocky and volcanic in character, the Izu Islands support a fairly heavy cover of vegetation wherever weathering has produced sufficient soil and exposure to the strong winds is not too great. Some of the islands — particularly Hachijojima in the south — though lacking in tall trees, are extensively wooded and covered with nearly impenetrable thickets of wild shrubbery. Others — like O-shima in the north — are largely barren and support very little cover other than grasses, herbs, and small shrubs on some of the plateaus and in the valleys.

      The Flora of the Izus comprises a mixture of both temperate and subtropical vegetation. It has not been studied and classified as fully as has the plant life of such adjacent areas as Japan proper, Formosa, the Marianas Islands, and the Bonins. Available sources indicate, however, that the genera or particular species that are most common or are of greatest economic significance are as follows:

      Bonin Islands. The vegetation of the Bonins varies markedly between the luxuriant though somewhat patchy growth of the northern islands and the very sparse and Poor cover on the southern islands, especially those of the Volcano group. In the north there are densely-wooded forests, tangled thickets, and numerous climbing, hanging, and flowering plants. Even the uplands and hills, which have many exposed areas, are islgely covered with tall lush grass. Many parts of the southern islands, on the other hand are barren and desert-like, with only occasional grasslands and a few trees.

      In contrast to the temperate and subtropical Flora of the Izus, that of the Bonins; which lie much farther south, is in general tropical. The significant genera and species may be summarized as follows:

      As in the Izus, gelidium is economically the most important sea plant, although its collection is not as well developed as in the northern islands.

      Japanese botanists have extensively investigated, enumerated, and classified the land plants of the Bonins. A leading naturalist, T. Nakai, has compiled the following list of native species, which are identified by their scientific names. Additions (mainly alternative names) have been made from other sources and are shown in parentheses.

Abutilon indicum G. Don.
Achyranthes boninensis Nakai, A. obtusifolia Linnaeus.
Adiantum farleyense Moore.
Aeginctia indica Roxburgh.
Ajuga boninsimae Maximowicz.
Alpinia bilamellata Makino, A. boninsemensis Makino,
(Alsophila bongardiana Mett. ), (A. latebrosa Hooker), A. mertensiana
    Kunze, A. ogurae Hayata.
Aneilema augustifolia N. E. Brown.
Angelica utilis Makino.
(Angiopteris evecta Hoffm.), A. suboppositifolia de Vries.
(Ardisia sieboldi Miq.).
Aristida cumingiana Trinius & Ruprecht.
Artemisia nipponica, Nakai.
(Aspidium lepigarum).
Asplenium adiantoides Christensen, (A. davallioides), A. laserpitiifolium
    Lamarck, A. mertensianum Kunze, (A. nidus), A. tenerum Forster,
    A. unilaterale Lamarck.
Aster indicus Linnaeus.
Athyrium hahajimense Nakai.

Bidens pilosa Linnaeus.
Bladhia sieboldii Nakai.
Blechnopsis orientalis Presl.
Boehmeria boninensis Nakai.
Boninia crassifolia Nakai, B. glabra Planchon.
Boniniella ikenoi Hayata.
Boninofatsia oligocarpella Nakai, B. wilsonii Nakai.
Bothriospermum tenellum Fischer & Meyer.

Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming.
Calanthe hattorii Schlechter.
Callicarpa glabra Koidzumi, C. nishimurae Koidzumi, C. subpubescens
    Hooker & Arnott.
Calophyllum inophyllum Linnaeus.
Calpidia nishimurae Rehder & Wilson.
Canavallia lineata de Candolle, (C. obtusifolia de Candolle).
Capsella bursa-pastoris Moench.
Carex bongardii Hooker & Arnott, C. boninensis Koidzumi,
    (C. bottiana), C. hattoriana Nakai.
Cassia boninensis Nakai.
Cassytha filiformis Linnaeus.
Cayratia japonica Merrill.
Celtis boninensis Koidzumi.
Centella asiatica Urbain.
Cerastium triviale Link.
Chenopodium album Linnaeus.
Chloris radiata Swartz.
Chomelia subsessilis Matsumura.
Cinnamomum pseudo-pedunculatum Hayata, (C. scrobiculatum Nakai).
Cirrhopetalum bominense Schlechter.
Cirsium boninense Koidzumi, (C. indicum), C. toyoshimae Koidzumi.
Cladium boninsimae Nakai, C. brevistigma Nakai, C. jamaicensis
    Crantz.
Claoxylon centenarium Koidzumi.

Clematis boninensis Hayata.
Cocos nucifera Linnaeus.
Commelina benghalensis Linnaeus.
Corydalis brachystyla Koidzumi.
Corymbis subdensa Schlechter.
Crepidiastrum ameristophyllum Nakai, C. grandicolum Nakai,
    C. lanceolatum Nakai, C. linguaefolium Nakai.
Crepis japonica A. Gray.
(Crinum asiaticum Linnaeus), C. gigas Nakai.
Cyathea bominsimensis Copeland, (C. spinulosa Wall.).
Cymbopogon angustispica Nakai.
Cynodon dactylon Persoon.
Cyperus difformis Linnaeus, C. rotundus Linnaeus.
Cyphokentia savoryana Rehder & Wilson.
Cyrtomium falcatum Prese.

Dactyloctenium aegypticum Willdenow
Dendrocacalia crepidifolia Nakai.
Dianella nemorosa Lamarck.
Diplazium bonincola Nakai, D. boninense Koidzumi, D. longicarpum
    Kodama,
    D. subtripinnatum Nakai, D. virescens Kunze.
Distylium lepidotum Nakai.
Dodonaea viscosa Linnaeus.
Drynaria cordata Willdenow.
Dryopteris bominensis Kodama, D. chichisemensis Nakai, D. insularis
    Kodama,
    D. lepigera O. Kuntze, D. microlepigera Nakai, D. ogasawarensis
    Nakai, D. parasitica O. Kuntze.

Echinochloa colona Link, E. crus-galli P. de Beauvois.
Eclipta alba Hasskarl. Elaeagnus rotundatus Nakai.
Elaeocarpus phoiniaefolius Hooker & Arnott.
Elephantopus scaber Linnaeus.
Eleusine indica Gaertner.
Emilia sonchifolia de Candolle.
Eragrostis plumosa Link.
Erythrina indica Linnaeus.
Eugenia boninensis Hayata, E. cleyeraefolia Yatabe, E. microphylla
    Abel,
    (E. milletiana), (E. oxygona Koidzumi), (E. sinensis).
Eulophia toyoshimai Nakai.
Euonymus boninensis Koidzumi.
Euphorbia hirta Linnaeus, E. pilulifera, Linnaeus, E. thymifolia Linnaeus.
Eurya bominensis Koidzumi, (E. japonica).
Evodia kunagaiana Rehder & Wilson, (E. triphylla).
Exocarpus bominensis Nakai.

Fagara bominensis Koidzumi.
Ficus boninsimae Koidzumi, F. iidaiana Rehder & Wilson,
    F. nishimurae Koidzumi.
Fimbristylis boninensis Hayata, F. diphylla Vahl, F. ferruginea Vahl,
    F. marianna Gaudichaud, F. miliacea Vahl.
(Flagellaria indica).
Freycinetia formosana Hemsley.

Gahnia boninsimae Maximowicz, (G. tristis).
(Gardenia Florida Linnaeus), G. jasminoides Ellis.
Geniostoma glabra Matsumura.
Goodyera boninsis Nakai, (G. hachijoensis), G. procera Hooker.
(Gymnopteris repanda).

Hedyotis cordata Zuccarini, H. grayii Bentham & Hooker.
Hernadia peltata Meissner.
Hibiscus boninensis Nakai, H. glaber Matsumura, H. tiliaceus Linnaeus.
Histiopteris incisa J. Smith.
Holcus hale pensis Linnaeus.
(Hydrocotyle asiatica), H. sibthorpioides Lamarck.

Ilex matanoana Makino, I. mertensii Maximowicz.
Imperata cylindrica P. de Beauvois.
(Ipomaea biloba Linnaeus), I. gracilis R. Brown, I. pescapreae Swartz.
Ischaemum ischaemoides Nakai.

Itysanthes veronicifolia Urbain.
Ixeris japonica Nakai, I. longirostra Nakai, I. stolonifera A. Gray.

Juniperus taxifolia Hooker & Arnott.

Korthalsella japonica Engler.
Kyllingia brevifolia Rottboel, K. monocephala Linnaeus.

Leptochilus cuspidatus Christensen, L. decurrens Blume.
Leptochloa filiformis Roemer & Schultes.
Lepturus latifolius Nakai, L. repens R. Brown.
(Ligustrum japonicum), (L. medium), L. micranthus Zuccarini.
Lindernia pyxidaria Allioni.
Lindsaya orbiculata Mettenius.
(Litsia glauca). Livistona boninensis Nakai, (L. chinensis R. Brown).
Lobelia boninensis Koidzumi.
Loxogramme bominensis Nakai, L. toyoshimai Nakai.
(Luisia bominensis Schlechter).
Lycius griseolum Koidzumi.
Lycopodium cernuum Linnaeus.
Lysimachia mauritiana Lamarck.

Machilus boninensis Koidzumi, M. kobu Maximowicz, (M. thunbergii).
Marattia ternatea de Vries.
Mariscus canescens Nakai, M. cyperoides Domin.
Medicago denticulata Willdenow, M. lupulina Linnaeus.
Melastoma tetramera Hayata.
Melia azedarach Linnaeus.
Microlepsia speluncae Moore, M. strigosa Presl.
Microstylis boninensis Koidzumi.
Miscanthus boninensis Nakai.
Morinda citrifolia Linnaeus, M. umbellata Linnaeus.
Morus boninensis Koidzumi, (M. indica).
Mucuna toyoshimae Nakai.
Myoporum boninense Koidzumi.

(Narvastrum tricuspidatum).
Neolitzea boninensis Koidzumi, N. gilva Koidzumi, N. stenophylla
    Koidzumi.
Neottopteris nidus J. Smith.
(Nephrodium parasiticum).
Nephrolepsis biserrata Schott, N. cordifolia Presl, N. hirsutula Presl.

Ochrosia hexandra Koidzumi, O. nakaiana Koidzumi.
Odontosoria chinensis J. Smith.
Onychium japonicum Kuntze.
Ophioderma pendula Presl.
Ophioglossum ellipticum Hooker & Grevielle, O. reticulatum Linnaeus.
Oplismenus compositus P. de Beauvois.
Osmanthus insularis Koidzumi.
Osmunda bromelliaefolia Copeland, (O. javanica).
(Osteomeles anthylliadifolia Lindl.), O. boninensis Nakai,0. lanata Nakai.
Oxalis corniculata Linnaeus.

Pandanus boninensis Warburg.
Panicum distans Trinius, P. nakaianum Honda.
(Paralstonia clusiacea Bailley).
Paspalum conjugatum Bergias, P. dilatatum Poiret.
Pennisetum sordidum Koidžumi.
Peperomia boninzimensis Makino.
Persicaria hydropiper Spach.
Photinia wrightiana Maximowicz.
Phymatodes boninensis Nakai, P. grossa Presl, P. hahajimensis Nakai,
    P. masaskei Nakai, P. subnormalis Nakai.
Piper boninense Nakai, P. postelsianum Maximowicz.
Pittosporum boninense Koidzumi, P. chichisemense Nakai,
    P. parvifolium Hayata, (P. tobira).
Plantago major Linnaeus.
Platanthera boninensis Koidzumi.
Platypholis boninsimae Maximowicz.
Poa annua Linnaeus.
(Polypodium boninense), (P. normale), (P. pothifolium).

Portulaca oleracea Linnaeus, P. pilosa Linnaeus.
Procris laevigata Blume.
Psilotum nudum P. de Beauvois, (P. triquetrum Swartz).
Psychotria boninensis Nakai, P. homalosperma A. Gray.
Pteridium aquilium Kuhn.
Pteris hachijyoensis Nakai, P. quadriaurita Retzius.
Putrangiva integerrima Koidzumi.
Pycreus globosus Reichenbach.

Rapanea maximowiczii Koidzumi.
Raphiolepsis integerrima Hooker & Arnott.
Rhaphis acicularis Honda.
Rhododendron boninense Nakai.
Rhynchospora boninensis Nakai.
Rubus nishimurae Koidzumi, R. ribisoides Matsumura.
Rumex japonicus Meissner.

Sagina crassicaulis S. Watason, S. maxima A, Gray.
Sambucus boninensis Nakai, (S. javanica Bl.).
Sapindus mukorosi Gaertner.
Scaevola koenigii Vahl, (S. sericea).
(Schima boninensis Nakai), S. mertensii Koidzumi, (S. noronhae).
Schizaea digitata Swartz.
(Schoenus hattorianus Nakai).
Scirpus chinensis Munro, S. hattorianus Nakai.
(Scolopendrium ikenoi Makino).
Scutellaria longituba Koidzumi.
Sedum orizifolium Makino.
Selaginella boninensis Baker, S. involvens Spring, (S. longicauda).
Selliguea elliptica Beddome.
Senebicra pinnatifida de Candolle.
Senecio boninsimae Yatabe.
Setaria boninensis Nakai.
Sida acuta Burmann, S. rhombifolia Linnaeus.
Sideroxylon boninense Nakai, S. dubium Koidzumi, S. ferrugineum
    Hooker & Arnott.
Smilax boninensis Nakai.
Solanum boninense Nakai, S. suffruticosum Schousboe.
Sonchus oleraceus Linnaeus.
Spilanthes acmella Linnaeus.
Sporobolus virginicus Kunth.
Statice arbuscula Maximowicz.
Stellaria media Cyrill.
Stenochlaena sorbifolia J. Smith.
Stictocardia campanulata Merrill.
Synedrella modiflora Gaertner.
Syntherisma ischaema Nash, S. sanguinalis Dulac.

Terminalia catappa Linnaeus.
Tetragonia expansa Aiton.
Thuarea sarmentosa Persoon.
Torulinium confertum Hamilton.
Tournefortia argentea Linnaeus.
Trachelospermum foetidum Nakai.
Trema argentea Blume, (T. orientalis).
Trichomanes bipunctatum Poiret, T. bominense Koidzumi, P. bonincola
    Nakai, T. cumingii Christensen, T. maseanum Christensen, T. ompnalodes Christensen,
    T. orientale Christensen, (T. parvulum), (T. peltatum), T. rigidum
    Swartz.
Trichosanthes boninensis Nakai.

Vaccinium boninense Nakai, (V. bracteatum).
Vernonia cinerea Lessing.
Viburnum boninseimense Koidzumi.
Wittaria augustata Rosenburgh, V. boninensis Christensen.
(Vitex ovata Thunberg), V. rotundifolia Linnaeus.

(Webera subsessilis).
Wedelia biflora de Candolle, W. prostrata Hemsley.
Wikstroemia pseudo-retusa Koidzumi.

(Zanthoxylum ailanthoides Siebold & Zuccarini), Z. arnottianum
    Maximowicz.
Zoisia japonica Steudel, Z. tenuifolia Trinius.

125. Fauna

      Reptiles. Reptiles are fairly numerous although the number of species is small. Venomous pit vipers of the genus Trigonocephalus are found on some of the Izus. Harmless snakes of a species not stated are reported to be present on Kozu-shima and are very numerous on Tadanae-jima. Few snakes are found south of Hachijo-jima, but two small viper-like species — a black one and a red one — have been reported from Haha-jima. A small lizard (Cryptoblepharus boutonii nigropunctata Stejneger) and a gecko (Gehyra variegata ogasawarensis Okada) are native to the Bonins, and another lizard (Eumeces latiscutatus okadae Stejneger) has been reported from the Izus. The most important reptiles in the Bonins are sea turtles, of which two species of green turtle (Chelonia mydas and C. japonica) and the hawksbill (Eretnochelys imbricata) are said to be native to the area. A fresh-water snapping turtle has also been introduced from Japan. No native amphibians are reported, although the edible frog, Rana catesbiana, has recently been brought to the Bonins from Tokyo.

      Insects. Information on insects and their prevalence, especially in the Izus, is not as complete as is desirable. It is known that there are many, but, in general, they appear to be considerably less numerous than in most other island areas of the western Pacific. The principal pest is a cockroach of the Blattidae family, of which three species are specifically reported (see list below). Blatta orientalis is probably also present. Other common pests are the tropical bedbug (Cimex hemipterus), which is found on most of the islands, both red and white ants, which are particularly prevalent in the Bonins, and flies. The latter are specifically reported on Hachijo-jima and from most islands in the Bonin group, but probably abound throughout the area. Those in the Bonins are said to be green in color and may be green bottle flies (Lucilia Caesar or L. sericata of the family Muscidae). The flies on the other islands have sometimes been described as large black flies; at least some are probably the common housefly (Musca domestica). Spiders, scorpions, and centipedes are not native to the islands but are occasionally found on some, where they have probably been introduced by cargo ships. A few varieties of butterflies are found on some of the Izu islands. A large species of plant louse is reported from the Bonins but is not otherwise identified.

      The most common insects harmful to man are mosquitoes, body and head lice, and mites. The extent to which mosquitoes are present is variously reported. It appears, however, that they are far more numerous and troublesome, both day and night, in the Bonins than in the Izus. Prior to 1912 mosquitoes were specifically reported to be absent from O-shima and To-jima, though present on Hachijo-jima, Ko-jima, Chichi-jima, and Haha-jima. The Bonins proper, the Volcano Islands, and Marcus Island were reported to be free of Anopheles. There was no information as to the presence of the anopheline mosquito in the Izus, although Anopheles Hyrcanus var. sinensis was suspected on Ko-jima because of cases of filariasis reported from that island. The existence of Culex fatigans was also suspected throughout the region. Since the outbreak of war, however, it appears highly probable that both Anopheles and Culex, as well as other genera of mosquitoes, have been introduced to many if not all of the islands. Several types of lice are found. These include the body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus, also known as P. vestimenti or P. corporis), the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitus, also known as P. capitis or P. humanus capitis), and the rat louse (Polyplax spinulosus). Mites are also prevalent in some of the islands. The most important ones are Trombidium akamushi (a chigger, sometimes called Trombidiidae akamushi) and Sarcoptes scabiei (the itch mite). The former live as ectoparasites on rats and birds and frequently are encountered on grasses, especially on cut-over land or in areas that are subject to flood. They are more common in late spring and early summer. The itch mite, which is the cause of the common skin disease, scabies, is said to be a frequent parasite on many of the inhabitants throughout the islands. Although not specifically reported, presumably both the

common dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) and the tropical rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) are present.

      The following is a classification, by order and family, of the insect genera found in the Bonin Islands according to reports made by the Japanese scientists T. Esaki, H. Furukawa, and T. Kano:

      Birds. The comparatively abundant bird life of the islands has been rather fully reported by Japanese scientists. . In the list which follows, the lower-case initials i, b, and v indicate the presence of a species in the Izus, Bonins proper, or Volcano IsIands, respectively; capital letters indicate that the bird breeds in the particular islands.

      Fish. The marine fauna of the Izus and Bonins, which comprises a mixture of subtropical and tropical fish, has been likened by several Japanese authorities to that of Formosa, the South Seas mandated islands, and the Hawaiian Islands. Economically, the most important fish found in waters around the Izus are the bonito, mackerel, horse mackerel, pike, flying fish, salmon trout, and shark; those in the Bonin waters, in addition to the important mammals — the whale, porpoise, and dolphin — are the tuna, bonito, and shark. Other fish specifically reported include caranx, dogfish (Squalus), dule, eel, gar, gray mullet (Mugil), pagin, parrot fish, perch, ray, salarias, and wrasse (Labrus). The poisonous puff toadfish. (Tetroden), which is found in the waters of some of the islands, is extremely dangerous to eat and can cause death. The sting ray (Trygon pastinaca), also fairly common, is both poisonous and vicious. A minnow (Gambusia patruelis) is reported to inhabit many of the fresh-water streams. There are doubtless other varieties of fresh-water fish and many hundreds of other species of coastal and deep-sea fish. For fishing, see 313.

      Shellfish. Shellfish are among the most important and valuable marine resources and products of the islands. Crustaceans are less numerous than molluscs and are found chiefly in the waters of the Izus. The most important crustacea reported are Carpilius, Daira, Lambrus, lobster (not otherwise identified), Plagusia, shrimp (not otherwise identified), and Thalamita. Land crabs, probably of the genus Gecarcinus, are also found. Molluscs are especially abundant in the Bonins, where they are generally found along the coastal reefs and shores in beds which extend to depths of as much as 200 meters below: the high-tide level. The flesh of most of them is edible, and their shells are often of a thickness and luster that makes them highly desirable for use as ornaments or as materials for the industrial arts. The following is a list of mollusca genera frequently found in the sea waters around the Bonins, as reported by N. Toyama.

      Land and fresh-water molluscs are also rather numerous in the Bonins proper. The following list indicates the various genera ( classified according to family) and the reported places of their occurrence.

      Other Marine Fauna. Among the sea mammals, dolphins and porpoises are the most numerous. Whales of several small species are common, but are less numerous now than formerly. There are many kinds of Echinodermata, such as starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers, especially in the Bonins where the principal genera reported are: Actinopyga, Colobocentrotus, Echinometra, Echinothrix, Heterocentrotus, Holothuria, Ophiocoma, and Stomopneustes. Several varieties of Coelenterata are also reported from the Bonins, including particularly Anisopamma and Fungia. Many other kinds of corals thrive in this region, but coral is not found as far north as the Izus.

      Installations. According to available information the Japanese have spent little on installations in this area. The few which have been constructed are modest and are confined mainly to the larger villages and towns, such as Motomura, Hommura, Okago, Mitsune in the Izus, and Omura in the Bonins. The principal installations other than those primarily of military nature (which are described in Army and Navy Monographs) are: fire lookout towers and buildings for the storage of fire-fighting equipment (see 231); telephone, telegraph, and cable stations (272), radio stations and installations (273); waterworks and other facilities for water storage and distribution (281); electric power plants and transmission lines (284); roads and bridges (291); breakwaters, piers, and wharves (294); coal depots, warehouses, and other storage facilities (295). For descriptions of public buildings, parks, and improvements, see 285, and for industrial plants and facilities, see 322 through 327.

13. HIST0RY

131. Discovery and Early Contacts

      Izu Islands. The Izu Islands were discovered during a period remote in Japanese history. Tjapanese legend attributes the earliest development of the islands to the sons and descendants of Mishima Myojin, a pre-historic emperor. Chinese legend records that ancient Chinese searchers after the elixir of eternal life ventured as far afield as the Izus. It is more historically probable, however, that the first discoverers and settlers were farmers and fishermen from the Izu Peninsula on Honshu. The population was subsequently augmented by considerable numbers of criminal and political prisoners who were banished from Japan to the islands in punishment for their crimes (see 132).

      Bonin Islands. The Bonin Islands may have been sighted by early Spanish explorers, possibly by Bernard de Torres, who discovered the Volcano Islands in 1543. A group of islands called the "Arsopispo Archipelago" appears on early Spanish maps and seems to indicate knowledge of other islands to the north as well as of the Volcano Islands. It is possible that the Hollanders Quast and Tasman sighted the Bonins in 1639.

      The Japanese attribute discovery of the Bonins to Sadayori Ogasawara, possibly a legendary figure. Ogasawara is supposed to have visited the islands in 1593, to have received them as a fief from the Japanese emperor, and to have established a colony which managed to survive for about 30 years. Doubtless a few Japanese sailors visited the islands when carried off their course by storm and current. One such visit is recorded for 1670 and another for 1675. Brief contact with the islands was established in 1728 by another Ogasawara. In 1785 Shihei Hayashi in his "Sankoku Tsuran" (General Survey of the Three Kingdoms) recommended establishment of an agricultural colony, but the Japanese took no action for almost a hundred years. Meanwhile, the islands enjoyed a rather colorful international history (see 132).

      The first authenticated Western visitors to the Bonins were American and English whalers. In 1823 the American Captain Coffin visited Haha-jima (frequently called Coffin Island thereafter) and claimed it for the United States. It is quite possible that he visited the northern islands as well and included them in his claim. American claim to the Bonins was reiterated in 1853-54, by Commodore Perry and Captain King.

      The English whaler Supply touched at Chichi-jima in 1825 and claimed the Bonins for Great Britain. Late in 1828 the English whaler William was wrecked in Chichi-jima Harbor; another whaler, the Timor, soon appeared and took off most of the crew, but two men remained behind and thus became the first Europeans to live on the island. Captain Beechey of the 16-gun British sloop Blossom, which had been dispatched to the Bering Strait to co-operate with the arctic expeditions of Franklin and Parry, entered Chichi-jima Harbor on June 9, 1827, and remained for six days. Captain Beechey again took possession of the islands for Great Britain; he affixed an inscribed copper plate to a tree to substantiate his claims ahd published an account of the visit in his report of his voyage. He also charted the Bonins and named the northern and southern island groups Parry and Bailey, respectively, the three principal islands of the central group Stapleton, Buckland, and Peel, and the main harbor of the latter island Port Lloyd, all after contemporary British figures.

      The following year the famous Russian scientific expedition under Frederick Lütke explored the islands and appraised them as promising for colonial exploitation. Although Lütke is reported to have claimed the islands for Russia, he predicted in his published report of the expedition that the British would soon establish a colony in the Bonins as a port of call for whalers and as a center for both legal and contraband trade with China. Events soon proved the prediction partially right: the founding of a British-sponsored colony in 1830 opened the Bonins to international development.

      Volcano Islands. The Volcano Islands, first discovered by the Spaniard Bernard de Torres in 1513, were sighted repeatedly thereafter by Pacific voyagers, including the Hollanders Quast and Tasman (1639), the English Captains King (1779) and Gore (1784), the Russian Admiral Krusenstern (1805), and a Captain Solis (1813). The islands, however, were not landed upon or explored until the Japanese arrived in the region in the latter part of the nineteenth century.

      Marcus Island. Marcus Island was one of the very last of the significant Pacific islauds to become known to the world, escaping discovery until 1896. The Japanese navigator Shinroku Mizutani came upon the uninhabited island in the course of an exploratory voyage to Kulaunus Island and claimed Marcus for Japan.

132. Political History

      Izu Islands. From very early times until shortly after the Meiji Restoration, the Izu Islands, T0Fshima in particular, served as a sort of penal colony and place of banishment for various Japanese criminals and discredited political figures. Most famous of the exiles was Minamoto Tametomo, leader of the Genji in the epic Hogen war (1156–58) and a man of fabulous strength and virtue. After the defeat of the Genji at the hands of the Heike, Minamoto was captured and banished to O-shima, where he later died by his own hand. Hideiye Ukita, commander-in-Chief of the western armies, which were defeated in the Battle of Sekigahara (1606), was the first and most famous of the exiles sent to Hachijo-jima. To this island alone, the government deported from 1610 to 1886 a total of l,823 persons, including the following: 4 feudal lords, 62 ministers of state, 2 court ladies, 72 other women, 221 monks, 10 priests of shrines, 315 townsmen, 281 farmers, 324 vagrants, 61 servants, 12 beggars, 6 hermits, and 3 outcasts. Although these exiles often sank into abject poverty and depression, the constant infusion of members of the upper and educated classes gave stimulus to the cultural development of the islands and in large part determined their present complex and conservative cultural pattern. Prior to and during the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1867), the affairs of the islands were entrusted to a chief magistrate appointed from Yedo, but in actual practice authority was exercised by local officers and village heads. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the administration of the Izus was brought into conformity with that of Japan proper. The islands were placed in quick succession under the jurisdiction of the Nirayama Prefecture (1868), the Ashigara Prefecture (1871), the Shizuoka Prefecture (1876), and finally under the Tokyo Prefecture (1878), where they still remain. In 1881 the duties and powers of the officials of the seven inhabited islands were delimited by official regulations, and an administrative office was set up to have jurisdiction over the whole group. Establishment of police stations and a district court in subsequent years increased central control. In 1900 separate island offices were set up on O-shima and Hachijo-jima. In 1926 these island offices were reorganized as branch administrative offices of the Tokyo Prefecture. Since that time the administrative system has not changed in any important respect (see 214).

      Bonin Islands. In 1830 Captain Charlton, British Consul in the Sandwich Islands, encouraged and assisted a motley group of colonists to settle in the Bonin Islands. The party consisted of one Genoese who was probably a British subject, one Englishman, two Americans, one Dane, and several dozen Hawaiians. Arriving at Port Lloyd (Omura) on Peel Island (Chichi-jima), they formally raised the British flag, but for a number of years were so little concerned with the question of sovereignty that all of them, and particularly the Americans, seem to have regarded themselves still as subjects of the country of their origin and the colony as a purely independent venture. The Genoese, Matteo Mazarro, whom Captain Charlton had put in charge of the group and whom a later British Consul in 1842 "recommended" to the settlers as their head until a duly appointed British officer should arrive, exercised a vague sort of authority; but from the very first the most respected and most influential colonist was the Massachusetts-born Nathaniel Savory. Under his leadership the settlers cleared the forests and established a flourishing and very nearly self-sufficient agricultural colony. Almost immediately British and American, and sometimes French and Russian, whalers began to visit Peel Island for provisions. Often as many as 10 or 12 whalers called in a single year, and other ships occasionally put in as well — a few ships engaged in the coolie trade during the California gold rush and various ships which needed repairs and dared not risk stopping at Japanese ports. One such visit in 1849 brought near disaster to the colony. A ship variously reported as flying the British or American flag and manned by a crew of international unsavory characters, accepted the hospitality of the settlers and then repaid it with thievery and destruction. The sailors stole Nathaniel Savory's savings of several thousand American dollars, terrorized the settlers and wantonly destroyed their property, then departed from the islands after abducting several not unwilling native girls. After this unfortunate incident, as well as on several earlier and later occasions, the residents appealed both to British and American authorities for protection. Neither the British nor the Americans, however, exhibited the slightest inclination to accept responsibility for the colony until 1853, when Commodore Perry visited the islands.

      Commodore M. C. Perry, with his steamships Susquehanna and Saratoga, then en route from the Ryukyu Islands on their historic mission to Japan, spent June 14-18, 1853, at Port Lloyd. The visit was not accidental. Commodore Perry had formulated a bold Pacific policy of his own and was making strong recommendations to the Department of State in Washington that the United States should take immediate and forceful action to establish itself in those Pacific islands which were still unclaimed. He proposed establishment of United States naval and commercial bases in Hawaii, the Bonins, the Ryukyus, and Formosa; he proposed in addition the extension of American "friendship and protection" to

Siam, Cambodia, Cochin-China, and parts of Borneo and Sumatra. Believing that a trans-Pacific steamship route between San Francisco and Shanghai was of vital necessity to American economic development, Perry cousidered that on such a route the Ryukyu and Bonin Islands would provide highly desirable locations for coaling and supply stations, which, of course, would have to be under American control. Here and elsewhere in the Pacific, he declared, the United States had need of settlements which would be "offshoots from us rather than, strictly speaking, colonies." At Naha in the Ryukyu Islands he successfully negotiated for a coal depot and proposed actually placing all of the Ryukyu Islands under the American flag. He then proceeded to Port Lloyd where, as he had been advised, he found in actual existence the sort of non-colonial, American-dominated settlement he himself proposed. He promptly took steps to confirm American control of the Bonins.

      Perry consulted with Nathaniel Savory, and while there is no record of their conversations, he undoubtedly led Savory to believe that the United States proposed to take a more active interest in the islands. For payment of $50 he secured title to a piece of land with 1,000 yards of frontage on the bay, favorably situated for construction of offices, warehouses, and a pier, and on his departure he appointed Savory as his agent to manage the property. He encouraged the settlers to organize a definite local government, and it is likely that he was largely responsible for the actual wording of the simple constitution for the "Colony of Peel Island" which resulted. In accordance with the terms of this charter, Nathaniel Savory was elected chief magistrate; James Motley and Thomas H. Webb were elected councilmen. These three were empowered to enact all necessary regulations, such regulations to become effective upon the approval of two-thirds of the residents. At that time, the residents were a cosmopolitan group of 3 or 4 Americans,3 or 4 British subjects, 1 Portuguese, and over 20 Hawaiian Islanders, or 31 in all. Four months after his departure from the islands, Perry ordered Captain Kelly of the Plymouth to proceed to the Bonins to take possession of the southern group for the United States. Captain Kelly performed this duty on October 30, 1893, renaming the group the Coffin Islands in honor of the American Captain who had discovered and claimed them.

      Perry's actions did not escape British attention and protest. Acting on instructions from the Foreign Minister in London, Sir George Bonham, Chief Superintendent of Trade in Hong Kong, called upon Commodore Perry, who was in Hong Kong at the time gathering his forces for a second visit to Japan. Bonham asked for a clarification of American policy and called attention to the "general understanding" that the Bonins belonged to England. Perry reasserted American claims to the island, declaring that British sovereignty had never been clearly established and that both on the basis of original discovery and the preponderant number and influence of American settlers, the islands were rightfully American possessions. The following year Perry ordered Captain Joel Abbot to call at Port Lloyd while en route to Manila. Captain Abbot brought gifts of seeds and agricultural implements to the settlers and, at their request, "lent" them an American flag to raise when vessels entered harbor.

      For a brief time it looked as though the Bonins would achieve international importance, but Britain was too busy with the Crimean War to press her claims, and the United States soon became involved in the Civil War. Furthermore, the opening of Yokohama to foreign shipping eliminated the necessity for a coaling station in the Bonins. Nevertheless, infrequent visits of foreign vessels over a period of 20 years sustained interest in the islands. Perry was not the only American naval officer to call at the Bonins during this time. An American surveying brig, the Dolphin, had stopped at the islands several years prior to Perry's visit, and the American warships the Vincennes and the Tuscarora called in 1855 and 1874 respectively. A few English naval vessels likewise paid short calls: the Enterprise in 1851, the surveying brig Serpent in 1852, and the Curlew in 1875. In 1854 a Russian naval squadron of four vessels visited Port Lloyd. The Russian man-of-war Hydmak and the German frigate Hertha made brief stops in 1876.

      Despite all these more than casual visits, the islanders were left largely to their own devices. Soon after Perry's departure they forgot about their experiment in formal self-government and relapsed into unorganized community life. Save for several killings and one family feud, this miscellaneous international group maintained a remarkable degree of peace, order, and prosperity until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, when a newly-awakened Japan suddenly intervened.

      Japanese had visited the colony as early as 1840, when a storm-driven Japanese vessel wintered at Port Lloyd and was provisioned free by the hospitable white settlers. Shipwrecked Japanese sailors visited the colony at intervals thereafter, and several actually became settlers. Very soon after Perry's visit, Japan began to realize the importance of the Bonin Islands. In 1861 Manjuro Nakahama, a whaler who was also a special envoy of the chief magistrate appointed for the Izus , began operations in the waters off the Bonins. Late in the same year the Japanese Government formally notified Townsend Harris that it intended to occupy the Bonins, which it claimed by right of discovery in

the Sixteenth century. Secretary of State Seward allowed the matter to pass without comment. The Japanese dispatched Lord Chikuho Mizuno as commissioner with about 100 colonists from Hachijo-jima. The party acquired land from the foreign settlers and started an agricultural community at Ogiura, across the bay from the foreign colony. The Japanese commissioner apparently made little effort to administer the whole area, but he did take one step which aroused foreign protest. For an alleged misdemeanor he deported to the American authorities in Yokohama one George Horton, an American citizen who had left the Perry expedition to stay in the islands. The United States Minister in Tokyo made strong representations to the Japanese Government over the incident, and in 1864 the Japanese paid $l,000 indemnity to Horton, who died soon thereafter in Japan. The Commissioner's one other recorded act was to publish in English a set of harbor regulations of which the following is a sample: "Article 5. — If any person or persons come on shore from any vessel that may be come into this port who shall have pleasure hunting and waste upon the land of any inhabitants and also committed any of such he or they shall be seized and transported to the Captain of their vessel."

      The shogunate, which at the time was involved in great domestic difficulties, soon withdrew its support from the Japanese settlers, and the discovery that the land was not suited to rice cultivation spelled the failure of the venture. Within 15 months practically all of the colonists, including even the commissioner, had returned to Japan. The foreign settlers had seen enough of the Japanese, however, to become very much alarmed. They appealed to Washington but got no satisfaction. In 1870 Tokyo dispatched Naosuke Inouye and several other Japanese — on an American vessel — to explore the islands. In 1873 the United States Minister at Tokyo, acting on a request by an American resident of Peel Island, asked for a statement from Washington on the official attitude toward the colony. Hamilton Fish, then Secretary of State, ruled that inasmuch as the possession of the islands had never been expressly sanctioned by the American Government and the colonists had received no promise expressed or implied of American protection, the Americans in the island were to be regarded as having expatriated themselves.

      After Fish's ruling, the Japanese were not slow to see their advantage: in 1875 they returned to stay. Four commissioners, representing the Treasury, Navy, Home Affairs, and Foreign Affairs departments suddenly arrived in Port Lloyd and claimed the Bonins for Japan. The incident had mild international complications. The Japanese steamer, Meiji Maru, with the commissioners on board, left Yokohama at noon on November 21 and arrived at Peel Island early on the 24th. The British, who had got wind of Japan's intentions, made belated efforts to take steps of their own. The British naval vessel Curlew, carrying Russell Robinson, British Consul at Yokohama, as special envoy of Sir Harry Parkes, British Minister to Japan, left Yokohama at 10 A. M. on the 22nd. After making the voyage largely under sail, the envoy arrived at Peel Island on the 26th — too late to interfere with Japan's action. The British envoy contented himself with an investigation of insular affairs, which he undertook in behalf of both British and American interests. As a result of his findings, Great Britain decided to make no claim to the islands, and the American authorities recommended to Washington that no further steps were necessary to guarantee American interests. The Japanese Government guaranteed foreign rights. Nonetheless four American residents complained as early as 1876 that their property had been confiscated. John A. Bingham, American Minister to Japan, made appropriate representations to the Japanese Foreign Office, but he took no action since he was convinced that Japan would abide by her treaty commitments. No further diplomatic representations were made, and the foreigners in the Bonins were consequently left without recourse to any foreign power.

      The Japanese proceeded to re-establish their settlement at Ogiura and to bring in new colonists. The Bonins were duly annexed by Japan. In 1880 they were organized under the Ogasawara island office and placed within the jurisdiction of the Tokyo Prefectural Government. Administrative headquarters were transferred in 1882 from Ogiura to Omura, where government buildings, warehouses, and settlers' homes were soon constructed near the foreigh-style homes of the Western community. In 1926 the island office at Omura was reorganized as a branch administrative office of the Tokyo Prefecture.

      Soon after Japanese occupation, immigration to the Bonins was limited to Japanese citizens. Foreign residents numbered 67 in 1878 — 22 Englishmen , 9 Americans, 4 Frenchmen, 3 Germans, 9 Portuguese, 16 Spaniards, and 4 non-Bonin natives. In 1882 the foreign population consisted of 72 persons, 59 on Chichi-jima and 13 on Haha-jima. By 1912 these people and their descendants numbered 120 persons. In 1913, after the emigration to Guam of a considerable part of the population who found Japanese rule intolerable, only 79 remained. Since that time the number has remained fairly constant, though by intermarriage and constant contact the descendants of the early foreign population have blended somewhat with Japanese immigrants.

      Volcano Islands. After absorbing the Bonins into their empire, the Japanese continued southward. In 1887 the mayor of Tokyo, with a party of others on the steam-

ship Meiji Maru, paid a visit to the Volcano Islands. In 1891 the islands were declared a part of the Japanese Empire and were placed under the supervision of the Ogasawara island office. A few permanent settlers immigrated to Iwo-shima in 1897, and both Iwo-shima and Kita-iwo-shima have experienced slow development. Minami-iwo-jima remains uninhabited and undeveloped to the present day.

      Marcus Island. Discovered by a Japanese navigator, Shinroku Mizutani in 1896, this island was annexed by Japan and placed under the supervision of the Ogasawara island office in 1898.

123. Economic Development

      Early Trade. Since ancient times agriculture and fishing have been the primary occupations of the Izu Islanders. Before the Meiji era, the islanders produced sufficient foodstuffs for their own needs but carried on very little if any trade with Japan proper. There was some intercourse among the islands themselves but this resulted principally from the movement of fishing boats from one fishing area to another and from the movement of emigrants southward rather than from any deliberate efforts to carry on trade.

      According to earliest Japanese reports, the Bonin Islands produced plenteous vegetables and fruits and abounded with fish, turtles, and crabs. The first permanent settlers (see 132) brought in seeds, agricultural implements, and livestock, and had little difficulty in making a living from the land and the sea. They confined their activities largely to Peel Island (Chichi-jima ), although some established themselves on Hillsboro (Haha-jima). A little trade, principally in hides, onions, seeds, and farm implements, was carried on with the inhabitants of Guam and Hawaii. Whalers were depended upon to carry the items traded, although several of the Bonin Islanders owned ocean-going vessels. There was also considerable trade between the whalers and the settlers, mainly on a barter basis since money was little used in the islands. The principal wants of the colonists were piece goods for clothing, spirits, salt, soap, tobacco, hardware, nails, knives, tools, and ammunition. They offered the whalers in exchange turtle meat and oil, bananas, lemons, poultry, and garden produce. The earliest trade between the Bonins and Japan is reported to have occurred in 1874, when the Tori, a small schooner flying the American flag, made a few trips between Yokohama and Fort Lloyd (Omura) carrying turtle shell and oil, lemons, and other island produce to exchange for cheap Japanese-made piece goods.

      Development of Agriculture. The earliest food crops in the Izus were wheat, millet, and barnyard grass. Japanese taro was apparently introduced in relatively modern times; for example, it was first raised on Hachijo-jima in the early eighteenth century. Yams were introduced at about the same time. These two root crops were particularly well suited to cultivation in the islands and were brought in to end the famines which had formerly been prevalent and had harassed Hachijo-jima in particular. Vegetable production has also been developed in recent years and exports have been sent to the Tokyo market. Despite the increase in the quantity of locally-grown foodstuffs, however, the islands have become more and more dependent upon food imports from Japan proper. Yams and taro are still important items in the local diet, but they are gradually being replaced by rice, most of which is imported from Japan since it is cultivated only to a very limited extent in the islands (see 311).

      The early settlers in the Bonins planted sugar cane, potatoes, Indian corn, onions, tobacco, pumpkins, taro, plaintain, coconuts, watermelons, pineapples, bananas, and lemons. The variety and quality of products were improved by continued importations from the Hawaiian Islands and Guam, and by gifts from Commodore Perry, who gave seed to the settlers. Under the Japanese administration, sugar-cane cultivation, vegetable farming, and fruit growing have been developed on a commercial scale. The sugar industry was the first to receive attention. In 1889 Japanese immigrants began to arrive in some numbers. These newcomers devoted themselves to sugar cultivation with the result that annual production was valued at about ¥800,000 by 1919. Thereafter, however, declining world markets affected the industry adversely and in 1925 exports amounted to only ¥305,000. Fruit cultivation increased rapidly in the early Japanese period. Banana exports in particular were valued at ¥100,000 in 1911 and amounted to 35 per cent of the total exports of the islands in that year. In later years, however, Ogasawara bananas had to face competition of cheaper Formosa fruit, and exports dwindled to a few hundred yen annually.

      The first permanent settlers in the Volcano Islands were farmers who came to Iwo-jima in 1897 and undertook the cultivation of cotton. In 1902, Hiranosuke Ishino imported 44 tenant families from Niigata, Shizuoka, and Fukushima prefectures in Japan,

and from Hachijo-jima, to plant cotton. Ishino switched to sugar farming in 1910, however. When World War I created a sugar boom, the new industry prospered beyond all expectations. Sugar production in 1915 amounted to 2,000 kegs valued at ¥500,000. The subsequent slump in the sugar market brought a sudden cessation of this activity, but when coca cultivation was introduced a few years later and sugar production again be came profitable, the islands' agricultural economy revived somewhat.

      Coconut cultivation has been introduced on Marcus Island in recent years, but the extent or value of the crop produced has not been reported.

      Development of the Fishing Industry. The fishing industry has been developed in the Izus with the encouragement of the Tokyo Prefectural Government, which has set up a marine products experimental station on O-shima and has promoted the export of fresh and dried fish to the Tokyo market (see 325). Formerly the profits of the industry were largely monopolized by fishermen from Kyushu on the Japan mainland, but in recent years the number of locally-owned power fishing boats has increased, and local markets have been established where the islanders can dispose of their catch directly to buyers from Tokyo. Salmon trout and horse mackerel are the most important items in the trade, but flying fish, bonito, tunny, shark, cuttlefish, and lobster are also caught.

      Fishing is also important in the Bonins where, in 1925, exports included ¥95,000 worth of dried bonito, ¥56,000 worth of fresh fish, and ¥49,000 worth of whale meat. Shark fishing attracted the first Japanese to the Volcano Islands, but the industry has been little developed. There is fishing for bonito in the waters near Marcus Island, but on a very small scale.

      Development of Animal Husbandry. The raising of cattle for meat and dairy products was introduced on O-shima in the Izus during the late Tokugawa period and soon spread to the southern islands. The wild grass of the islands is well suited to grazing, and since 1901 the local strain of cattle has been considerably improved by the introduction of Holstein breed. In 1937 there were 2,000 head of cattle on Hachijo-jima alone, 600 of them dairy cows, and the production of condensed milk and butter alone amounted to about ¥170,000.

      The early settlers in the Bonins hunted deer, which were plentiful in the forests, and supplemented their meat larder by raising large numbers of poultry and pigs. Commodore Perry, on one of his early visits to the group, contributed four head of cattle, five Shanghai sheep, and six goats. Although the cattle were stolen by whalers and the sheep died, the goats prospered until the islands swarmed with them. Cattle have been subsequently re-introduced and raised with considerable success.

      Other Economic Development. The first product of the Izus to gain any significance in Japan proper was the yellow Hachijo silk which was woven specifically for use as tribute to the Tokugawa shoguns. The dye and weave were considered of unique beauty and the formula for the dye was kept secret. Production of this type of silk has almost entirely disappeared in recent times, but ordinary, silk continues to be an important product of Hachijo-jima as well as other Izu islands (see 322).

      Charcoal making, long an industry of some local importance in the Izus, suddenly expanded at the time of World War I, and in the early 1930's accounted for exports from Hachijo-jima to the value of about ¥170,000 (see 324).

      In the Bonins, the production of the semi-precious Ogasawara coral, begun in 1915 and exploited on a commercial scale after 1921, has been of some importance. Coral production amounted to about ¥1,000,000 in 1926, but fell off to an average of about ¥200,000 in the following years (see 324).

      Sulphur mining has been carried on to a limited extent in the Volcano Islands. About 1895 some sulphur gatherers settled on Iwo-jima and Kita-iwo-jima to work the deposits. Although the quality of the sulphur was good, the deposits were not extensive. Transportation costs proved to be high, with the result that the venture was soon abandoned. It is reported, however, that the operation was again resumed in 1903 (see 324).

      In recent years, as a part of the development program of the Tokyo Prefecture, the islands, particularly the Izus, have been widely publicized in Japan as vacation resorts. Catering to the tourist trade has become economically significant on O-shima, but as yet none of the other islands have been much developed as resort centers.

121. Missions

      Christian Missions. Although Christian missionaries have visited the islands from time to time and have made plans for carrying on work in the area, there is no re-

port of an organized mission ever having been established in either the Izus or the Bonins. The Christian churches in the area carry on missionary work, but their primary function is to minister to those inhabitants who were already Christian before coming to the islands.

      Shinto and Buddhist Missions. Although Shinto and Buddhist missionaries have undoubtedly worked in the Islands, there are no available accounts of their activities and no report of any missions having been established. The majority of the population attend the numerous Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples in the area. For a discussion of religion in the islands, see 154.

14. PEOPLE

141. Racial Characteristics

      Physical Appearance. Except for a few Koreans, Formosans, and "naturalized" persons, the inhabitants of the islands are of pure Japanese descent and are practically the same in appearance as the people of Japan proper. It is noteworthy, however, that they are somewhat taller than most Japanese. The women — with relatively fair complexions, glossy black hair, and jet-black eyes — especially those on O-shima, are popularly considered by the Japanese to be of singular beauty. The naturalized people, who are the descendants of an early group of British, American, Italian, Spanish, French, German, Portuguese-African, Negro, Polynesian, and Micronesian colonists (see 132), exhibit the rather complex combination of physical traits that might naturally be expected from a blending of such stocks. Since about 1900, however, there has been extensive intermarriage between these people and the Japanese, and the offspring of such unions have manifested continually increasing resemblance to their Japanese parents. It accordingly appears that within another 20 or 25 years, the descendants of the naturalized people will be entirely indistinguishable from pure Japanese.

142. Language

      Standard and Dialectic Japanese. Japanese of the Tokyo region, which has been designated as the national language for the Empire, is spoken in the Izu and Bonin Islands. However, on O-shima and Hachijo-jima at least, marked dialects of Japanese are spoken by those whose ancestors have been long resident in the islands. The dialect on Hachijo-jima resembles that of the Ryukyu Islands. A few illustrations of the differences between standard Japanese and the local dialect appear in the following table:

      Foreign Languages. Foreign languages are not taught in the schools of the Izus or Bonins. Only a very few of the Japanese residents, principally recent immigrants from Japan proper and local government officials, know more than a few words of English. American English was formerly the standard language in the Bonins, but the naturalized people who spoke it have now adopted Japanese. Only three of the oldest residents (who may now be dead) are reported to be thoroughly conversant with English (see 145). Their children can speak some English but are not really proficient. The other young people in this group have been educated exclusively in Japanese schools, and while they may be able to understand simple spoken English, none of them are likely to be able to speak, read, or write the language.

143. Population

      Early Settlement. Since very early times the Izu Islands have been settled by Japanese, both ancient and modern immigrants coming mainly from the Tokyo region. The Bonins proper were peopled first by foreign colonists then, after 1875, by Japanese immigrants mainly from the Izus. The Volcano Islands and Marcus Island have been populated since the 1890's by immigrants from the Izus and the Bonins proper. For details regarding early settlement, see 132.

      Total Population. The first general census made by the Japanese Government in 1920 indicated a total population of 33,106. Annual population increments thereafter

were comparatively small but regular, and the total population reached 39,549 in 1935. During the next five-year period, however, the tendency toward increases ceased, and the population declined to 39,328 in 1940. The following table summarizes quinquennial census figures since 1920 for the three major island groups and Marcus Island:

The density of the total population in the islands in 1940 was 253.4 persons per square mile. Comparative population densities per square mile in 1937 were 482.5 for Japan proper and 43.4 for the United States.

      Distribution by Race. Practically all the inhabitants in the islands are Japanese. Available 1940 census figures do not contain a breakdown of the population according to race, but in 1936 the only non-Japanese reported for the area were 217 Koreans, 3 Formosans, and 5 "foreigners," located as follows:

The five foreigners were reported to be living in one household, but were not further identified. Most likely, they were true foreign nationals since the few remaining descendants of the early foreign colonists have been naturalized (see 216) and are classified as Japanese for census purposes.

      Distribution by Locality and Sex. About 47 per cent of the total population is concentrated on the two largest islands — O-shima and Hachijo-jima — which in i940 had population densities of 283.8 and 313.6 persons per square mile, respectively. Six other islands — Miyake-jima, Nii-jima, Chichi-jima, Kozu-shima, Haha-jima, and Iwo-jima — comprise an additional 49 per cent, and the remaining 4 per cent is widely scattered. The distribution of men and women is approximately even on all the islands except Chichi-jima and Haha-jima where the sex ratios in 1940 were respectively 159 men and 134 men to 100 women. The distribution of the population in 1940 and 1930 — by administrative districts, islands, and village (mura) areas — together with data on sex distribution in 1940 and the number of households in 1936 are presented below:

It will be noted that the 1940 census does not indicate any inhabitants for five islands (Tori-jima, Muko-jima, Yome-jima, Ototo-jima, and Marcus Island) which were reported to be populated in 1930 and 1935. Similarly, no populations are shown for Ane-jima and Mei-jima which, according to the 1935 census, had three and five inhabitants, respectively. From other sources of information, however, it appears that many and possibly all of these islands were to some extent still inhabited in 1940. If so, their populations have possibly been included with those reported for mura (village) areas on larger adjacent islands. The mura system was reorganized and extended in 1940, and presumably many mura areas now include offshore islets as well as their assigned territories on the larger islands (see 215). Other islands for which no populations were reported in the

      Distribution by Age. The following table indicates the distribution by age of the male and female inhabitants of the islands in 1935:

      Migration. Statistics on migration in the Izus and Bonins are not available, but other sources of information indicate that there is considerable movement of the population, particularly from island to island and also between the islands and Japan. Sugar workers and other emigrants frequently move southward from Hachijo-jima and Aoga-shima in the Izus to various islands in the Bonins. Male laborers, from O-shima and Nii-jima especially, often migrate to the Tokyo-Yokohama industrial region, some of them merely for seasonal employment and others for permanent residence. Emigrants from Japan, mainly from the Tokyo area, have long entered the islands; such settlers, however, are usually inclined to return to Japan after a few years regardless of how they fare in their island undertakings. In general, it appears that the islands are no longer as attractive to immigrant laborers or colonists as they were in the early decades of the twentieth century. The overall migration tendency in recent years has been for islanders to leave the area to take up residence elsewhere.

144. Vital Statistics

      Births. The following table shows the number of births, stillbirths, and birth rates per thousand of population by administrative districts and islands in 1930, the latest year for which such statistics are available:

Comparative birth rates in 1930 were 32.4 for Japan proper and 28.0 for Tokyo Prefecture. The birth rate in the United States in 1932 was 17.4.

      Mortality. The number of deaths and the death rates per thousand of population in 1930 Were as follows:

Comparative death rates in 1930 were 18.2 for Japan proper and 14.2 for Tokyo Prefecture. The death rate in the United States in 1932 was 10.9.

      Population Trends. It will be noted from the above two tables that in 1930 the number of births exceeded the number of deaths by 530. This appears to indicate that the

average annual increase of 430 persons in the islands during the period 1920-1935 (see 143) was due principally to natural factors rather than to immigration, which accounted for a substantial part of the population increase in previous decades. Between 1935 and 1940 the population declined slightly, apparently because emigration from the islands increased to a point where it more than offset the natural birth-death rate of increase.

145. Personalities

      Visitors. Only a very few foreigners have visited the islands since Japan assumed effective control in the latter part of the nineteenth century. They include: a German scientist, D. O. Warburg, who visited the Izu, Bonin, and Volcano Islands in 1888; an Ornithologist, P. A. Holst, who collected specimens in the Bonin and Volcano Islands in 1889; an American botanist, E. H. Wilson, who spent two weeks in 1917 in various islands of the Bonins studying vegetation; Professor A. R. Paget of the Tokyo School of Foreign Languages, who visited O-shima for a brief period in 1918; a German, Richard Goldschmidt, who visited the Bonins for a few days in 1926 and later published a report on Chichi-jima and its foreign inhabitants; another German, W. Gundert, who made a brief vacation trip to Chichi-jima in 1930. Other persons who have visited the islands and are now residing in the United States are listed alphabetically below, together with their latest reported addresses:

Professor William H. Hobbs (b. 1864, Massachusetts), geologist, visited the Bonins briefly in 1921. Address: 2078 Natural Science Building, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Carl von Hoffman (b. 1891, Russia), traveler, spent one week in the Bonins and four days on Hachijo-jima and O-shima in the Izus about 1930. Address: 662 Lexington Avenue, New York, New York.

Captain Ellsworth L. West (b. 1864, Massachusetts), farmer and retired master mariner, gained familiarity with the Bonins as a mariner and whaler in the late nineteenth century. Address: R. F. D., Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts.

Junius B. Wood (b. 1877, Pennsylvania), journalist, visited the Bonins briefly in 1923. Address: 116 Woodridge Avenue, Silver Spring, Maryland, or care of Military Intelligence Service, P.W. B., War Department, Washington, D. C.

      Residents. Except for branch administration officials (see 214), educational personnel (see 262), and Christian clergymen (see 154), there are no reports on other persons residing in the islands in recent years. The latest available information on non-official residents is contained in two reports — one by a Japanese who visited the islands in 1916, and the other by Richard Goldschmidt who spent a few days in the Bonins in 1926. The residents mentioned in the 1916 report — comprising prominent farmers and fishermen on Hachijo-jima, leading settlers on Haha-jima and Chichi-jima, and three landlords on Iwo-jima — are listed below.

Hachijo‑jima
Kashidate:	Tamotsu Hattori.
Okago:	Tokuji Kawabatake, Kyusaku Okubo.
Sueyoshi:	Rosaburo Nagoda.
Haha‑jima
Kitamura:	Ginsaburo Amano, Fumino Hiratsuka, Sotaro Kawano, Sennosuke Yoshioka.
Okimura:	Hiranosuke Asanuma, Kenzo Kikuchi, Taiichiro Kikuchi, Mikizo Susugi, Genzo Wada.
Chichi‑jima
Omura:	Seisaburo Aono, Chonosuke Asanuma, Teigoro Kikuchi, Enkichi Kuse, Tahira Miyauchi, Hirasuke Moriizumi, Tameyoshi Ogitama, Genjuro Onuma, Fukukichi Sato.
Ogiura:	Saemon Handa, Torinosuke Kitagawa, Tsunekazu Moraoka, Teihei Noguchi, Bunjiro Shimura, Isaburo Tomida.
Fukurozawa:  Naoji Endo, Teijiro Kawajima, Sojuro Tashiro.
Iwo‑jima:	Shusaburo Kuboda, Shohei Okamoto, Genjuro Onuma.

      The following list, based primarily on Richard Goldschmidt's report in 1926, Summarizes the names and descriptions of the more important "naturalized people" and their

descendants who were living on Chichi-jima at that time. For discussion of the naturalized people, see 132.

Savory Family

Benjamin Savory: son of Massachusetts-born Nathaniel Savory and a woman from Guam; dark-skinned but very similar to an American farmer in general appearance and attitude; over 90 years of age if still alive; leader of the foreign community; operator, along with other members of the Savory family, of a small plantation on the east shore of Futami Harbor; English-speaking.

Samuel Savory: son of Benjamin; half-caste appearance; married to a Japanese woman; his child indistinguishable from a Japanese.

Jane: daughter of Benjamin; markedly European appearance.

Another daughter: markedly European appearance.

A brother of Benjamin Savory: almost the same age, appearance, and characteristics as Benjamin; English-speaking.

A sister of Benjamin Savory: European appearance; English-speaking.

Gonzales Family

Reverend José Gonzales: grandson of a Portuguese-African settler; his mother a Savory; negroid; tall, kindly; married to a Japanese; educated in Kobe and Tokyo; formerly rector of the Anglican Church at Cnichi-jima, which is attended both by naturalized people and Japanese; Englishspeaking; favorably disposed toward Americans.

George Gonzales: Son of José Gonzales; markedly Japanese appearance; married to a Japanese; his son almost negroid.

Andrew Gonzales: Son of Jose Gonzales; negroid appearance.

Beatrice: daughter of José Gonzales; light-skinned, but Japanese appearance.

Another daughter of José Gonzales: negroid-Japanese appearance.

Robinson Family

Mr. Robinson: son of English settler and a woman from the Caroline Islands; Similar to the Savorys in appearance and attitude; English-speaking.

Miriam: daughter of Mr. Robinson and a Savory woman; European features but Skin color almost black.

Webb Family:

Caleb Webb: grandson of an English settler; European appearance; married to a Gonzales woman who is mulatto; given to drunkenness.

Eliza: daughter of Caleb Webb; practically European in appearance; twice married to German men; her children markedly European in appearance.

Eddie: daughter of Caleb Webb; European features but negroid hair and skin; twice married to Japanese men; her daughters Dorothy, Betty, Martha, Kozue, all Japanese in appearance.

Kate Webb; sister of Caleb Webb; beautiful European features, very dark skin and hair; married to Rufus Washington.

Washington Family

Charley Washington: son of a Bermuda Negro and a Savory woman; mulatto.

Rufus Washington: brother of Charley Washington; Imarried to Kate Webb; negroid appearance.

Herbert Washington: son of Rufus Washington; negroid.

Eileen: daughter of Rufus Washington; an attractive girl with white, negroid, and Polynesian features.

46

15. CUST0MS

151. Clothing and Ornamentation

      Men's Clothing. The clothing of the men in the Izus and Bonins is identical with that found in Japan proper. Conservative farmers and fishermen wear Japanese-style work clothes consisting of a long jacket and knee-length breeches made of cotton. Westerns-tyle clothes are worn by officials, the white-collar class, and not infrequently by the more modern workmen who have been influenced by the changing styles in Japan proper. The naturalized inhabitants of the Bonins and their descendants also wear Western-style clothing. During leisure hours men often exchange their work clothes for kimonos.

      Women's Clothing. The women of the Izu Islands wear dark-colored (usually navyblue with white dots) and close-fitting cotton kimonos, which are held in place by a one-inch obi or sash wrapped around the body twice and tied in front. When working in the fields, the women sometimes tuck their skirts under the obi to allow greater freedom. In cold weather the kimono is supplemented by an outer jacket of wadded cotton.

      The women of the Bonins tie the sash in back, and otherwise follow Japanese habits of dress. Because they less often engage in heavy manual labor than do the women of the Izus, their kimonos are lighter in color and gaily patterned, have fuller sleeves and skirts, and are often made of silk instead of cotton.

      Footgear. Children usually go barefooted, and adults not infrequently do so. Sometimes typical Japanese cotton socks, made with a separate big toe, and straw sandals are worn, but more frequently the sandals are worn without socks. Officials and the naturalized people usually wear Western-style footgear.

      Headgear. Although Western-style hats are sometimes worn, the most common type of headgear throughout the islands is a towel wrapped around the head like a turban. These towels, which are worn by both men and women, are said to keep perspiration from running into the eyes. Plain white towels are usually worn, but bright-colored ones are sometimes seen on the heads of women, particularly in the Bonins.

      Hair Styles. Although the women of the Bonins dress their hair in the same fashion as those in Japan proper, the women of the Izus have clung to a traditional method of hairdressing. Under this method, the origin of which has been variously ascribed to the influence of the exiled court ladies (see 132) and to the need for a firm foundation for carrying burdens on their head, the hair is allowed to grow — sometimes to a length of six feet — and is then combed in one long plait, knotted at the back, and held in place by a printed cotton scarf. Men throughout the islands cut their hair short in the Western manner.

      Cosmetics. Most island women lighten their complexions with a powder made from rice. In the Izus, the women have long been famed for the use of camellia oil. They frequently apply this oil to their hair, claiming that it increases both the length and blackness of the hair.

152. Life Routine

      Calendar. The Japanese formerly used a lunar calendar, but in 1871 the Gregorian calendar of Western culture was officially adopted. Since then the seven-day week with Sunday as a holiday has set the rhythm of work and rest in government offices, schools, and modern business enterprises. Many farmers and fishermen in rural Japan, however, still abide by the lunar calendar, for the seasonal festivals and rest days reckoned by it conform more closely to mythology, religious ritual, and slack periods in the rural economic routine.

      Year Designation. In Japan, although years are usually designated in the chronological sequence of the Christian Era, they are often specified by reference to the time when a particular Japanese emperor began his reign. For example, the year 1944 is also called the 19th year of Showa, which means that it is the 19th year since Hirohito became emperor and directed that his reign be known as Showa ("Enlightened Peace"). The designation of years according to reigns since the Meiji Restoration is summarized below:

      Holidays. Although national holidays are celebrated at the official Shinto shrines and in the schools, rural Japanese people seldom pay much attention, to them other than to conspicuously display a national flag in front of their homes. In the following list, a few holidays known to be celebrated in the Izus and Bonins have been combined with more important national holidays that are presumably observed to some extent locally:

January 1 to 3: New Year's (Shogatsu), a national holiday period during which the principal festivities are feasts; exchanges Of visits between relative S, attendance of services at official Shinto shrines, and "purification" of homes for the coming year; all debts are supposed to be paid before the beginning of this holiday.

January 15: Small New Year's (Koshogatsu), a rural ceremony intended to ensure good crops for the coming year; possibly celebrated in late February or March by those who still adhere to the lunar calendar.

February ll: Foundation Day (Kigensetsu), a national holiday in honor of the accession of Jimmu Temno, the first Japanese Emperor.

March 3: Girl Day or Doll Festival (Hina Matsuri), a festival in honor of girls; celebrated in many rural areas on the third day of the third lunar month (the latter part of April).

March 21: Spring Equinox Festival (Shunki-korei-sai), a national holiday officially celebrated at Shinto shrines; also, since it corresponds to a Buddhist festival (Higan), it is celebrated at Buddhist temples.

April 8: Buddha's Birthday, celebrated by Buddhists.

April 29: The Emperor's Birthday (Tencho-setsu), the most important national holiday; celebrated by games and sports.

May 5: Boy Day (Tango-no-sekku or Nobori-no-sekku), a festival in honor of boys; celebrated in many rural areas on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month (June); flags are flown by households in which boys have been born during the previous year; military prowess is stressed in the games which are played.

July 13 to l;: The Festival of the Dead (Bon), an important popular festival of Buddhist origin in honor of the spirits of the dead, who are believed to return to earth at this time. In rural areas this festival is next in importance to New Year's; it is specifically reported to be celebrated at Hachijo-jima where all the people, old and young, indulge in clamorous rejoicing, and bull fights are often held.

September 15: Harvest Moon Festival, usually observed by those in rural areas who still adhere to the lunar calendar.

September 23: Autumn Equinox Festival (Shuki korei sai), a national holiday celebrated both in Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples; graveyards are visited and cleaned, and flowers are placed on grave stones. In the Izus an equinoctial festival week is celebrated just before the picking of camellia berries.

October 17: Harvest Thanksgiving to the Deities of Ise (Kanname Sai), a national holiday which is usually celebrated in rural areas on a date that corresponds more closely with the time of harvest for the region.

November 3: Birthday of the Emperor Meiji (Meiji setsu), a national holiday on which the Meiji rescript on education is read in all the schools.

      Annual Economic Cycle. There is sufficient seasonal variation in the climate of the islands to produce a cycle of economic activity. In the Izus, occasional frosts render the winter an unsuitable season for growing most crops. Spring and summer are therefore the chief growing seasons and fall the time of harvest. In the Bonins, the warmer winters and the hot dry summers make the winter better suited to the growing of vegetables. Although fishing is carried on throughout the year in both island groups, the types of fish caught vary somewhat with the season. Tunny and mackerel are caught mostly during the late fall, winter, and early spring, while bonito are caught during the summer and early fall. In the Bonins turtles are hunted during the spring and early Summer.

      Bathing. The islanders provide no exception to the Japanese habit of taking frequent baths. Ten public baths were reported for the islands in 1936 (see 285). The inhabitants also frequently bathe in the hot springs which are found on many of the islands (see 121). As in Japan proper, mixed bathing is customary.

      Diet. The diet of the inhabitants in the Izus and Bonins is varied. It is similar to that prevailing in Japan proper, although in a number of the local households, sweet potatoes and Japanese taro replace rice as the main starch item, and dairy products are consumed to a considerably greater extent. Turtles provide an important source of meat, particularly in the Bonins. Fruit and garden vegetables, which are grown in abundance, commonly appear on the menus of the islanders. Methods of cooking are presumably similar to those in Japan with the exception that camellia oil is frequently employed as a kitchen fat.

      Beverages. The local inhabitants drink tea, milk, soft drinks, sake, sweet potato wine, sugar wine, and rum. A small amount of tea is grown on O-shima (see 311), milk is produced in island dairies (see 312), and sizable quantities of the popular alcoholic beverages are prepared locally (see 325). In addition, considerable quantities of tea and beverages are imported from Japan, as indicated in the following statistics for 1936:

      Tobacco and Narcotics. Tobacco is widely used, considerable quantities being imported from Japan for local consumption (see 345). Although a considerable amount of coca, from which cocaine is derived, is raised in the Bonins, there is no report of its use as a narcotic by the local inhabitants.

153. Sex and Marriage Customs

      Premarital Sex Relations. Japanese standards of sexual conduct prevail in the Izu and Bonin Islands. After reaching puberty, boys may and usually do indulge in sexual relations without fear of parental censure. Girls, however, are expected to remain chaste and ordinarily do. As a rule only those who become prostitutes or who are of the servant class indulge in premarital sex relations. Although schools are coeducational (see 262), serious affairs seldom develop from this contact, and exchanges of romantic letters are normally the extent of such relationships.

      Extra-Marital Sex Relations. After marriage the double standard of morality is even more exaggerated than before. It is extremely rare for a married woman to carry on an illicit affair and nearly as unusual for a man not to visit prostitutes or to keep a concubine. When a woman does commit adultery, both she and her lover are subject to a penitentiary sentence if prosecuted by the husband, or, if caught flagrante delicto, the husband may kill both and be subject only to a light penalty. If such serious steps are not taken by the husband, he usually at least divorces the wife. The only extra-marital outlet for sexual feelings permitted women occurs during the dances at drinking parties (see 155). As the party progresses, the women indulge in all kinds of exaggerated sexual mimicry to the accompaniment of a vigorous female chorus, all of which invariably ends up in roars of laughter. Even in this indulgence a woman must not go beyond well-defined bounds of restraint or she will be considered queer and no longer permitted to attend such affairs.

      Prostitution. According to available information, there is no system of licensed prostitution in the islands as in Japan. In 1939 the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Board announced that brothels were to be permitted on Chichi-jima, but the number that may have been established has not been reported. In the islands, however, there are many geisha, shakufu ("barmaids"), and jokyu ("waitresses"), who frequently indulge in prostitution. In 1936 one professional panderer for girls of this type was registered on O-shima. Only one case of illegal prostitution, also on O-shima, was reported in the same year.

      In Japan, particularly throughout the rural areas, it is not uncommon for poor families to sell their daughters to geisha or prostitution houses. A father is not disgraced for so doing, although he usually prefers to have his daughters marry if he is

financially able to permit it. Young widows and divorcees not infrequently support themselves by prostitution rather than remarrying. Presumably these same practices prevail in the islands.

      Marriage Negotiations. In Japanese society, marriages are almost always arranged by families. The first step consists of secret investigations carried on by a friend of the boy's parents called "naishokiki" (secret inquirer). When the naishokiki discovers a girl whom he considers suitable, he describes her to the boy's parents and then arranges for an "accidental" meeting between the boy and girl and their families. If the young man and his family approve of the girl, a careful and secret investigation of her family background is then made. The next step is to call in a nakodo (go-between) who carries on the marriage negotiations and finally arranges for the ceremony. Because of this indirect procedure and the use of intermediaries, either family can withdraw from the matchmaking at any stage without the fear of losing face.

      Families that have only daughters frequently negotiate for a man who is willing to marry one of their daughters and be adopted by them at the same time. Such an adopted son-in-law moves into the household and assumes the family name, which is thus kept from dying out. A young man is often willing to accept this combination of marriage and adoption, particularly if the bride's family is of a higher social or economic standing.

      Marriage Restrictions. In ancient times a Japanese could and frequently did marry his cousin. In modern Japan, the Western belief that such marriages are biologically harmful has been widely adopted, although the practice still prevails to some extent in rural areas. It was likewise not uncommon for a widowed person to marry a brother or sister of the deceased spouse. In 1898, however, the British code of marriage restrictions was adopted and it was made illegal to marry the sister of a deceased wife. This law is apparently not rigidly enforced in rural Japan, and such marriages still occur.

      The legal minimum age of marriage in Japan is 17 years for males and 15 years for females. The usual age, however, is reported to be 22 to 23 for the former and 17 to 18 for the latter.

      Wedding. The wedding ceremony in rural Japan consists simply of an exchange of rice between the bride and groom and a flowery pronouncement by the fathers that the bride has entered a new family. The go-between, rather than a priest, officiates during the ceremonies.

      Residence after Marriage. An oldest son and his bride commonly take up residence at his parents' house and continue to live there permanently. Each younger son normally moves to a house of his own, which is usually near that of his parents. An exception is reported for Hachijo-jima, where a couple generally live with the bride's parents until two children are born, after which time they establish an independent residence. An adopted son-in-law takes up residence in the home of the bride's parents.

      Polygamy. Although polygamy was customary in ancient Japan, it is now prohibited by law. Wealthy men, however, not infrequently have concubines who live with the family ostensibly as servants. Children by concubines are normally legitimatized by being registered as offspring of the legal wife.

      Marriage Statistics. In the islands a considerably higher proportion of adults are married or widowed in the O-shima and Hachijo-jima districts than in the Ogasawara district, as indicated in the following statistics for 1935:

This discrepancy is largely attributable to the considerably greater number of men than women on Chichi-jima (see 143).

      Divorce. In Japanese culture, divorce by mutual consent is recognized and may be made legal by simply notifying the registrar of a local court. Such divorces are much more common than divorces obtained through the courts — to which recourse may be had if formal dissolution of a marriage is desired by only one of the spouses. Ill treatment, gross insult, desertion, and adultery on the part of a wife (but not a husband) consti-

tute legal grounds for divorce. A man suffers little if any loss in status when divorced, but a woman loses considerably in marriage ability. For this reason divorcees not infrequently turn to prostitution for their livelihood.

      Divorces occur more frequently in the islands than in Japan proper, and are particularly common in the O-shima district. The following table shows the divorce rates per thousand of population in the islands for the year 1930, as compared with the divorce rate in the city of Tokyo for the same year:

      Birth Control. Although abortion and infanticide were common in ancient Japanese culture, as early as the latter part of the eighteenth century the feudal war lords attempted to prohibit these practices in order to help build up their fighting forces. Small farmers who did not wish to divide their land among numerous sons and poor families who could not afford several children, however, largely disregarded this policy. Nowadays, although the criminal code specifies that persons committing abortion or infanticide may be arrested for murder, it is reported that the practices are still prevalent in Japan, particularly in the rural areas. The knowledge of modern contraceptive devices was introduced into Japan from western European culture in fairly recent times. The practice of contraception, however, is contrary to government population policy and much official propaganda and effort has been waged against it. There is no specific information concerning abortion, infanticide, or birth control in the islands, but presumably the prevailing practices and attitudes are virtually the same as in rural areas in Japan.

      Pregnancy and Childbirth. Pregnancy and childbirth are regarded with considerable shame and secrecy in Japan. The process of childbearing in rural areas is surrounded by a great many superstitious beliefs and food taboos. Women are considered ritually unclean during the lying-in period, and there is a strong taboo against their crying out during labor; to do so would let others known that the "shameful" event was taking place. In former times women moved into a special birth house, but nowadays they normally deliver at home or in a hospital. There are one or more midwives in each mura (see 254) and they normally perform the functions of an obstetrician. Three days after a child is born it is named at a special ceremony which relatives attend and at which the midwife officiates.

      Folk Religion. The religion of rural Japanese is a blend of primitive Shinto, Buddhism, and State Shinto. Neither Christianity nor Confucianism plays a large role. Primitive Shinto, a combination of ancestor worship with the notion that every natural object has a spirit associated with it, still has a firm grip on the imagination of the peasants. Buddhist myths have become a part of the folklore of the people; Buddhist festivals are high points in the rural calendar; and Buddhist priests officiate at rural funeral ceremonies. Finally, State Shinto, the cult of emperor worship, has been propagated by the Japanese State through the centralized school system and propaganda facilities.

      Primitive Shinto was well developed in the Izu Islands. As time passed, stories about the migration from the main islands of Japan became tales of the gods. Thus the legend grew up that the islands had been settled by the son of the reigning god of Japan, who had renounced his heritage to settle on Miyake-jima with all his family. The ancestors of each family gradually became spirits who inhabited the house and had power to affect all activities within the house. The migrants from Japan proper brought with them, moreover, a cult which called for the worship of the "spirit" of any outstanding natural object in the physical environment. The volcanoes of the Izu Islands, particularly the active ones with their subterranean fires, immediately became the habitat of gods. The islanders believed that the spirits inhabiting the volcanoes and, to a lesser extent, those inhabiting large stones, controlled all activities in the immediate neighborhood. All these beliefs in the spirit world had as a corollary the notion that the spirits must be appeased. Before commencing a major undertaking — for example, a long journey — a devout peasant called in a special "praying priest" to propitiate various wayside gods and particularly the god of the volcano whose base he would have to skirt. The priest would also be called in before the peasant planted a field or built a new house. The propitiatory rituals necessary for minor undertakings were performed by the head of the house. For this purpose, and for the paying of respects to ancestors, each family set up a small shrine either in an inner room of the house or in a small building behind the house. Many of

these shrines are still in use; in 1936 it was reported that there were 86 private Shinto shrines (presumably those family shrines housed in separate buildings) in the Izu Islands. None was reported for the Bonin Islands.

      Buddhism. The role of Buddhism in the Izu and Bonin Islands is not clear. However, it appears that the doctrinal aspects of Buddhism — such as the central belief that a soul passes through various animal and human bodies in its struggle toward a heaven called "Nirvana" — are relatively unimportant. On the other hand, the myths about Buddha and his followers have become fused with the myths about the early gods on the main islands of Japan. Buddhist celebrations, particularly the Festival of Dead Souls, are very popular among the inhabitants. And the Shinto officials, who regard the bodies of the dead as unclean, have turned over all funeral and mourning ceremonies to the Buddhist priests.

      Five of the numerous Buddhist sects of the main islands of Japan are represented in the Izu and Bonin Islands: the Jodo, Soto, Shin, Nichiren, and Hokke sects. Although these sects were separated by doctrinal differences at the time they were established, today their followers, and many of the priests themselves, do not understand the differences. The number of temples and chief priests of the various sects reported for the islands in 1936 is shown in the following table:

      State Shinto. State Shinto is an outgrowth of primitive Shinto. The ancestors of the family which won out in the early struggles for political power became the gods of the nation; and, as Japan's imperialistic ambitions have grown, the cult of these gods has been pressed upon the people with increasing vigor. The government has found that the most successful method of propagation is to indoctrinate the young. School children in the Izu and Bonin Islands are taught, and believe, that the Sun Goddess Amaterasu sent her grandson to Honshu to establish a lineage of divine emperors. They believe that the land of Japan, thus singled out, is sacred, that the people of Japan are sacred, and that Japan has a mission to rule the world. They are taught that the supreme virtues are obedience to the Emperor and physical courage in serving him. Further, in an effort to make formal emperor-worship a life-long habit, the school children are taken on frequent trips to the government-supported shrines. In the islands there are a total of 18 such shrines maintained by the prefectural, district, or village (mura) governments. Although they are open to worshippers at all times, they are usually deserted except on national holidays (see 152), when an official appointed by the central government performs the rites of worship. The following table classifies the shrines and officials in each district according to the branch of government contributing to their support:

      Christianity. Christianity plays a very small role in the islands. The early Anglo-American settlers of Chichi-jima set up an Anglican Church there. Various Japanese Christian missionaries have attempted to make converts. In 1910, however, there were only four churches with a total following of 209 Christians in the islands. The location of these churches, their denominations, the names of their pastors, and the size of their congregations are shown below:

In addition, there are two preaching stations on O-shima, one at Habu and one at Okada, which are said to be visited regularly by Mr. Dohi of the Motomura Methodist Church.

      Death and Burial. In rural Japan the "chief" village elder has charge of burial arrangements. He consults with the family concerning the coffin and other funeral paraphernalia and appoints several young men of the village to act as grave diggers and pallbearers. Meanwhile a man from each household in the village has called on the bereaved family to express sympathy, and relatives bearing rice, rice wine, and colored cloth for funeral banners have begun to assemble. After the corpse has been washed, dressed in funeral clothes, and placed in the coffin, the relatives sit down to a funeral feast at which the place of honor is occupied by a Buddhist monk. At the end of the meal the monk leads a procession to the village graveyard, goes through a brief ritual, and then, accompanied by the relatives, leaves the graveyard. The appointed pallbearers fill up the grave and erect the grave markers.

      As a rule each village has one graveyard, usually situated on the outskirts of the village. Except on Hachijo-jima, where the custom of building grave huts may still persist, it is believed that graves are marked by simple tombstones. Although some families may prefer cremation to burial, as is the case in Japan proper, no crematories are reported for the islands.

      Mourning. The day after the funeral, relatives and the bereaved family visit the grave. Memorial services, arranged by the Buddhist priest, are held on every seventh day for a period of 49 days. The first and seventh services are held at the home of the deceased, and the intervening services take place at the homes of relatives. During this period, relatives wear mourning garb and abstain from eating animal food. The seventh service marks the end of the official mourning period, although close relatives may mourn longer.

145. Art and Recreation

      Decorative Art. Decorative art is not highly developed in the islands. Except for temple architecture, textile designs, and a small amount of artistic handicrafts (see 321), the tools, utensils, and buildings are usually simple and unadorned. Flower arrangement is usually taught in Japanese schools and is undoubtedly taught and practiced in the islands. Decorative plants are raised in the islands for export to Japan (see 324).

      Music and Danging. In rural Japan, drinking parties and banquets are often occasions for the singing of folk songs and for dancing. The islanders have local versions of folk songs and probably also of folk dances. Music and dancing are also a part of the ceremony of many of the annual festivals (see 152), and singing and the playing of Japanese guitars and harps are in the regular repertoire of geisha girls.