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SMITH & MCDOUGAL,
    ELECTROTYPERS

      This work, originally compiled in haste to meet the immediate wants of the Naval Academy, and revised at different periods under the pressure of other duties, has not merited the place it has so long occupied as a text-book.

      Of this the compiler has been fully conscious. Its deficiencies were so numerous and so obvious and the circumstances under which it was prepared so well known that apologies seemed altogether superfluous.

      It was for long years supposed, moreover, that some more competent hand would have undertaken an entirely new work.

      Finding this expectation not realized, Lieutenant Aaron Ward has kindly consented to undertake the task of revision. He has performed his work intelligently and well, leaving out what was obsolete, introducing much new material, rearranging the subjects, and bringing the text down to the present time.

      He has been ably assisted by Lieutenant Samuel Seabury, who has contributed some four hundred new illustrations and revised the old ones.

      Training Squadron,   }
Newport, R. I., Feb. 1883. }

      Grateful acknowledgments are due to those whose contributions to the text have enhanced the value of this work.

      Commander F. V. McNair has permitted the use of his pamphlet on Seamanship Drills.

      The chapter on the Laws of Storms is taken principally from the lecture of Lieutenant-Commander Thomas Nelson, Vol. V, Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute.

      Chapter XIX. is practically a reprint of Lieutenant D. Delehanty's pamphlet: "Cadet Midshipman's Manual."

      Chapter XXXV. has been prepared from notes furnished by Lieutenant-Commander Z. L. Tanner, together with data from the lectures of Constructor R. H. White, R. N., and from the professional pamphlets of the German Admiralty on steamers and screw propulsion.

      The suggestions made by Boatswain Robert Anderson, U. S. N., have been of special importance. Getting a lower yard on board, sending down a lower yard inside of rigging, rigging derricks, and carrying out anchors between two cutters in shoal water, are described from actual work performed under his direction.

      To Commander Taylor, Lieutenants Berry, Nazro, and Holman, U. S. N., and to many other officers, sincere thanks are tendered for their assistance and suggestions in the revision of the proofs.

      Wooden ships are usually built on stocks and launched on ways, which are inclined planes leading to the water's edge. Sometimes vessels are built in docks, which are artificial basins with level floors, shut off from outside waters by gates or by a single dam known as a caisson. These gates are water-tight and can be opened or closed; the dock is supplied with means for pumping out the water or letting it in.

      The lowest fore and aft piece which forms the foundation of a ship is called the keel (Plate 1, No. 1). It is of live-oak, or elm, and made of several pieces, the joints of which are known as scarphs.

      To receive the edge of the first row, or strake, of outside planking, called the garboard strake (2), the keel is scored throughout its length, the score being styled a rabbet (3).

      To protect the main keel from injury in grounding there is fitted under it a false keel (4), bolted on after the bolts which secure the frames to the main keel are clinched.

      The forward end of the ship is formed of the stem (5), usually of live-oak, and inclining forward from the keel. A rabbet, similar to the one scored in the keel, is cut into the sides of the stem and receives the forward ends of the outside planking, which are called the fore hood-ends.

      The stem is backed and strengthened by the apron (6), placed abaft it, and by the deadwood (7).

      Deadwood consists of timbers that fill the spaces where, owing to the shape of the vessel, the floor-timbers have to be discontinued.

      Inside of the forward deadwood and the apron is the stemson (8), a large knee which joins the apron to the upper part of the deadwood.

      The after-end of the ship is bounded by the stern-post (9), usually of live-oak, which stands perpendicular to the keel or slightly inclined aft. It is fitted like the stem with a rabbet on each side to receive the after-ends of the outside planking, or after-hoods, and it is strengthened by the introduction of a stern-post knee (10), inner post (11), and the after-deadwood (12). Above the latter is the after-deadwood knee (13).

      Screw vessels have generally two stern-posts; the after one, which carries the rudder, is called the rudder-post.

      The joining of the stern-post to the keel is effected by tenons and bolts.

      The frames (14) form the ribs of the ship. They stand mostly at right angles to the keel and each is formed of two parts joined together, each part being in itself made up of several pieces. The lowest portions of a square frame are called the floor-timbers; above these come the futtocks, then the long or short top-pieces. The starboard and port side of each frame form one continuous piece.

      Where, owing to the form of the ship, the frames do not stand at right angles to the keel, they are called cant frames.

      The following parts of the ship serve to secure the above-mentioned portions together and give the structure stiffness and strength; viz., the keelsons, breast-hooks (15) and stern-hooks (16), outer and inner planking, beams (17) and diagonal braces.

      The main keelson (18) is a fore and aft timber which is laid directly over the keel on the floor-timbers and may extend beyond the latter and over the deadwood, forward and aft. The keelson is bolted through frames, keel, and deadwood. There are usually additional keelsons at each side of the main keelson, known as sister keelsons (20). There are also boiler or bilge keelsons to support the boilers (19). Bilge-keels are exterior keels bolted on to the bottom of the ship on either side of and parallel to the main keel, and at some distance from the latter, to prevent rolling in vessels of certain form.

      To hold the two sides of the ship together in the forward and after ends, where the frames have no floor-timbers crossing the keel, owing to the form of the ship, there are worked in knee-shaped, horizontal timbers, either with a natural curve, or formed of two or more pieces backed by an iron or wooden knee. These curved supports, secured to either side of the ship, are termed breast-hooks (15) forward and stern-hooks (16) aft; when they support a deck they are called deck-hooks.

      The outer planking of a ship is formed of a number of oak planks of varying thickness, but nearly parallel when placed in position over the frames.

      To check marine growth on the bottom of vessels and the consequent decrease of speed, all wooden vessels of war are sheathed with copper from the keel to a point some distance above their line of flotation, or "water-line."

      Inner planking. This planking is not continuous, as in the case of outside planking, and in different parts of the ship is called by different names. It is known as the limber-strakes (21) nearest the keelson. These strakes extend along the bottom of the ship on either side of the

keelson. As the planking is carried up the side beyond the limber-strakes it is known as the ceiling (22); following it up higher we find projecting ledges, called shelf-pieces, or clamps, placed inside the frames to receive the deck-beams.

      The deck-beams (17), extending from side to side of the ship, holding the sides together, form the support for the deck-planking. The beams are supported by posts or stanchions (23) in their centre, and by clamps at each end. They are joined to the sides of the ship by iron or wooden knees, known as hanging (24), lodging (25), lap (26), or dagger (corruption of diagonal) knees, from their positions and form.

      The waterways (27) are timbers set in the side over the tops of the deck-beams and bolted to these and to the frames at the side.

      Decks are of oak, teak, or yellow pine, and are spiked to each deck-beam over which they pass.

      Vessels owe much of their strength to the use of diagonal trusses or braces, of metal, secured inside of the frame-timbers and forming a net-work which binds the frames firmly together.

      To the above outline of the parts of the hull is appended a list of prominent interior fittings and of the terms used in describing them: –

Aft. At or near the stern of the ship.

After passage. Usually a space in the after orlop of frigates, being a passageway to the different store-rooms on that deck.

Air-port. Hole cut in ship's side to give light and air to berth-deck. Usually circular.

Amidships. In or near the middle of the ship.

Apron. A timber secured in rear of the stem to strengthen it at the joint of upper and lower stem-pieces.

Athwartships. In the direction of the ship's breadth.

Bag-room. Where clothing-bags of crew are stored. Usually forward on the berth-deck or leading off of fore-passage.

Ballast. Stone or iron placed in the hold to bring the ship down to her proper line of flotation and give stability.

Beams. Timbers that extend from side to side, supporting the decks.

Bee-blocks. Clamps bolted to the bowsprit through which reeve the fore-topmast stays.

Belaying-pin. A pin of wood or metal at the side of the vessel or on the masts, around which a rope is fastened or belayed.

Bends. The thickest outside planking, extending from a little below the waterline to the lower gun-deck ports.

Berth-deck. The sleeping and mess-deck of the crew and officers of a ship.

Bibbs. Pieces of timber on either side of the mast to which the trestle trees are secured.

Bilge. The flat part of a ship's body on each side of the keel.

Bilge-keels. Long pieces of wood or iron affixed to ship's bottom to lessen the rolling motion.

Bill-board. A ledge on the ship's bow to receive the fluke of the anchor

Binnacle. A box containing the ship's compass.

Bitts. Large vertical timbers projecting above the deck to secure the ship's cable, also vertical posts to secure the main-tack, main-sheet, etc., according to location.

Boat-chocks. Blocks of wood shaped to receive the bottoms of boats, when hoisted in.

Bolsters. Rounded blocks of wood filling the angle between the trestle-tree and the mast, to prevent chafing of the rigging against the former.

Bolts. Pieces of iron or other metal used in fastening parts of the ship together.

Booby-hatch. A small hatchway, or the covering or companion of such an aperture.

Boom-iron. Iron rings secured to one yard or spar, to support another spar, which passes through the iron. Such are the studding-sail boom-irons on the lower and top-sail yards.

Bowsprit-bed. The part of the stem on which the bowsprit rests.

Bread-room. The store-rooms in which are kept the ship's allowance of hard-bread, etc. Usually situated in the after orlop.

Break of Forecastle. Where the rise of the forecastle towards the waste of the ship, ends. Commonly used to define the after side of a top-gallant forecastle.

Break of Poop. Where the rise of the poop towards the waist, ends. Commonly used in speaking of the forward end of the poop.

Breast-hooks. Knees, or an assemblage of timbers, set in the bows of ships and secured on either side to the timbers of the bow.

Bridle-ports. The ship's forward gun-ports. Through these ports are led the bridles of tow-lines or warps.

Bridge. A light structure extending across the ship above the spar-deck, to afford the officer of the deck or lookout a place for observation.

Bucklers. Shutters used in closing hawse-pipes (hawse-bucklers), or filling the circular opening of half-ports when there is no gun in the port (port-bucklers).

Bulk-heads. Partitions that divide off different parts of the ship.

Bulwarks. The sides of the ship above the upper deck.

Bumpkin. A projection of wood or iron from the bow or quarter, to give proper angle for the lead of the fore-tack or main-brace.

Cabin. The quarters of the commanding officer of a ship. On the gun-deck of a ship with flush spar-deck, or under the poop (poop-cabin) of a single-decked vessel or one having a poop in addition to a covered gun-deck. In the latter case the gun-deck cabin is usually occupied by a flag officer.

Cable-tier. Formerly platforms on which the ship's cables were coiled. At present understood to mean light platforms in the wings where spare rigging is stowed.

Cant-frames. Frames, forward and aft, which are not at right angles to the central fore and aft line of the vessel.

Cap. A joint fitted over the heads of masts to support the next higher mast, which passes through a hole in the cap.

Cap-shore. A stout upright which supports the forward edge of the lower cap.

Capstan. A barrel of wood or metal that revolves horizontally on a spindle; is used with capstan-bars or moved round by steam to raise heavy weights, weigh anchor, etc.

Carlings (28). Short timbers running fore and aft, connecting the beams.

Cat-head. An iron or wooden projection from the ship's bow to raise the anchor clear of the water.

Caulking. Filling the seams of a ship with oakum or cotton.

Cavil. A large wooden cleat used for belaying.

Ceiling. Portions of the inside planking of a ship.

Chains (see Channels). Chain chests. Lockers in the channels for the storage of wash-deck gear.

Chain-lockers. Receptacles for the chain cables of the ship, usually forward of the main-mast in the main-hold.

Chain-pipes. Iron linings of the holes through which the cables are led in passing from one deck to another.

Chain-plates. Iron plates for securing lower dead-eyes to ship's side.

Channels. Ledges of plank projecting from the side to give additional spread to the lower shrouds.

Chess-trees. Pieces of timber bolted in the top-sides, with sheaves for fore and main sheets, after guys. etc. Those for the fore and main sheets are known also as fore and main sheet "chocks."

Cleats. Pieces of wood with projecting arms, used for belaying ropes.

Coaming. A raised boundary to hatchways, to keep water from getting down, etc.

Cockpit. A space below the after hatchway under the berth-deck; usually the forward end of the after passage.

Compressor. In its simplest form, an iron lever fitted below each chain-pipe, the chain is controlled when running out by being, jammed between the compressor arm and edge of the chain-pipe.

Counter. The rounding of the stern over the run.

Cross-trees. Thwartship timbers supported by the bibbs and trestle-trees to sustain the frame of the top constitute the lower cross-trees. Top-mast cross-trees resting on the top-mast trestle-trees, extend the top-gallant shrouds.

Cutwater. The forward part of a ship's prow, forming the forward edge of the stem.

Dagger-knee. A knee which is inclined diagonally, usually to clear a port. Davits. Cranes projecting from the ship's side to hoist boats, etc.

Deadeye. A round flattish wooden block encircled by an iron "strap" and pierced with holes to receive a laniard by means of which rigging and stays are set up taut.

Dead-wood. Timber built up on top of the keel to give solid wood for supporting the heels of cant frames.

Decks. The different platforms of ships.

Dispensary. The ship's pharmacy, usually placed on starboard side of berth-deck forward of warrant officers' rooms, may also be in or near sick-bay.

Dolphin-striker. A small spar projecting downward from below the bowsprit to extend certain rigging of the head-booms and keep the latter in place.

Eye-bolt. A projecting bolt of which the head is fashioned into an eye, used for hooking tackles, etc.

Fid. A bar of iron or wood which passes through a fid-hole in the heel of a mast and rests on the trestle-trees on either side.

Fife-rail. Rails placed around each mast, fitted with belaying-pins to belay ropes.

Fish-davit. A movable piece of timber or iron projection, used to raise the fluke of an anchor and place it on the bill-board.

Fishes. Pieces of wood or iron used in effecting temporary repairs with injured masts, yards, etc.

Floor-timbers. Timbers of the frames which lie directly across the keel. Fore and Aft. Lying in the direction of the ship's length.

Forecastle. The upper-deck of a man-of-war forward of the after part of the fore-channels.

Fore-foot. The forward end. of the keel.

Fore-hold. The forward part of the hold, usually extending from abaft the fore-passage to about midway between fore and main masts.

Fore-passage. A passageway below the berth-deck leading to the general store-room and with entrances on either side to various special store rooms, sail-room, etc.

Fore-peak. The narrow part of a vessel's hold close to the bow and under the lowest deck, often accessible only from the general store-room.

Funnel. An iron band at a mast-head around which the rigging fits.

Futtock-plates. Iron plates to which the deadeyes of the topmast rigging and futtock-shrouds are secured.

Futtocks. Timbers of the frame between the floors and top-timbers.

Gammoning. The lashing or iron strap by which the bowsprit is secured to the stem.

Gangway. The spar-deck on each side of the booms between the quarter-deck and forecastle. Also an open space through the bulwarks as a passageway in and out of the ship.

General Store-room. Is situated below the berth-deck and at the forward end. of the fore-passage.

Gooseneck. A bent piece of iron used to connect a boom to a mast by entering an eye-bolt or clamp, and capable of movement at the curve.

Grating. An open latticed covering for hatches, etc.

Gripe. A piece bolted on forward of the stem, forming the lower end of the cut water.

Gun-deck A covered deck of a man-of-war carrying the whole or a portion of her battery. When the guns are carried on the upper-deck, its name as spar-deck remains unchanged.

Gun-room. Obsolete expression for the quarters of the commissioned officers.

Gunwale. The covering-piece of the heads of the timbers in a small vessel, or boat.

Half-deck. That part of the gun-deck between the main and mizzen masts on each side.

Hammock-nettings. Trough-shaped receptacles along the rail on either side, in which the hammocks are stowed. A net-work of ropes was formerly used for this purpose, hence the term; other nettings will be described, as used.

Hanging-knee. Knee placed vertically under a deck-beam.

Hatch. An opening in a deck, forming a passage from one deck to another, and into the holds.

Hawse-buckler. A plate used for closing the opening of the hawse-hole.

Hawse-holes. Holes in the bows of the ship through which pass the cables.

Hawse-pipe. Iron lining of the hawse-holes to take the chafe of the cables.

Hawse-plug. Plugs which fill the hawse-pipes to prevent the entrance of water when the cables are unbent. Usually made of canvas and stuffed, then termed "jackasses."

Head-board. Boards placed at the forward and after ends of the hammock-nettings.

Helm. Strictly, the bar by means of which the rudder is moved from side to side. Usually understood to mean the rudder, tiller, and wheel, or the whole of the steering arrangement.

Hold. The interior part of ship in which the stores or cargo, etc., are stowed. In a man-of-war if there are two holds the forward one is called the fore-hold and the after one, whatever its position, the main hold.

Horse-block. A small raised platform abreast the mizzen-mast, for the use of the officer of the deck when the ship is not supplied with a bridge.

Hounds. A projection on a mast for the trestle-trees to rest upon.

Hull. The main body of the ship.

Inboard. In the interior of the ship, as distinguished from outboard.

Keelson. A timber in the interior of the ship bolted on over the keel and floor timbers.

Knight-heads. Strong uprights on each side of the upper part of the stem to strengthen the bow and support the bowsprit.

Ledges (29). Light beams, parallel to the deck-beams butting on the clamps and carlings.

Light-boxes. Frames in which are set the side-lights of a vessel when under way.

Limbers. Gutters on each side of the keelson to allow the water to pass into the pump-well. Limber-boards, the covering of the limbers.

Life-buoy. An apparatus for the assistance of those who may fall overboard.

Locker. A drawer or chest that may be closed with a lock. Shot-locker, a compartment in the hold for storing shot; chain-locker, a similar compartment for the chain-cables.

Magazine. The store-room for the ship's powder, usually aft, under the wardroom, although many ships have two magazines, in which case one is forward and near the fore-passage.

Main-deck. A name given to the gun-deck of a vessel-of-war, and to the upper gun-deck of a two-decker.

Main-hold. That portion of the hold which extends from a short distance forward of the main-mast to the break of the orlop-deck.

Manger. Part of the deck divided off forward to prevent any water from running aft that may enter through the hawse-holes.

Manger-board. A plank running across the deck a short distance abaft the hawse-pipes, the after boundary of the manger.

Mast-coat. A canvas-covering fitted around the mast and over the wedges to prevent leakage around the mast.

Naval-pipe. Same as chain-pipe.

Oakum. Old rope picked to pieces, like hemp, used in caulking.

Orlop-deck. Usually a half-deck extending aft from the main-hold, a distance depending greatly upon the shape of the after body.

Outboard. On the outside of the ship, in contradistinction to inboard.

Partners. The framing around a mast-hole, to take the direct strain of the mast and mast-wedges.

Pawl. An iron arm on a capstan to keep it from recoiling.

Pin-rail. A railing on each side of the ship abreast of the masts, fitted with belaying pins for securing ropes.

Pay. To pay a seam is to pour hot pitch and tar into it after it has been caulked.

Poop. A deck raised above the after part of the spar-deck, reaching forward to the mizzen-mast.

Port. An opening cut in the side of the ship through which a gun may be discharged.

Port. The left side of a ship looking forward, as distinguished from starboard.

Pump-well. The part of the bilge upon which the suction of the pump acts directly.

Quarter-deck. Usually that part of the spar-deck which extends from the stern to the main-mast.

Quarter-gallery. Projections from the quarters of a vessel.

Rake. The inclination of a mast, etc., from a perpendicular direction to the keel.

Riding-bitts. The bitts around which the ship's cables are taken.

Ring-bolts. Eye-bolts having a ring through the eye of the bolt.

Rudder. The instrument by which a ship is steered.

Run. The narrowing of the after part of the ship.

Sail-room. Storage-room for spare sails, hammocks, and sail-maker's stores. In modern ships usually opens into the after-passage; some vessels have forward sail-rooms in fore-passage.

Sampson-knee. A heavy timber forward of the riding-bitts which serves to strengthen the latter.

Shell-room. Storage-room for explosive projectiles; when but one on board, is usually under the orlop near the after-hatch.

Shore. A post or timber used as a temporary support.

Sick-bay. The hospital of the ship, usually situated forward on the berth-deck.

Scuppers. Holes cut through the waterways and side to allow water to run off the decks.

Scuttle. A small circular aperture in a deck not intended for the passage of persons, through which powder, etc., may be passed from one deck to another.

Sheathing. Usually understood to mean a covering of copper, felt, etc., placed over a portion of the ship's surface to protect it. Copper sheathing covers the immersed part of a ship to protect it from marine growth.

Spar-deck. The upper deck of a ship-of-war.

Spirketing. The inside planking of a ship extending from the lower edges of the gun-ports to the waterways.

Spirit-room. A name formerly given to the paymaster's store-room in the after-part of the after-hold, reserved for stowage of spirits. The name applies at present to the paymaster's store-room for dry provisions.

Stanchions. Uprights placed under deck-beams to support them in the centre.

Starboard. The right side of a ship looking forward, as distinguished from port.

Steerage. The quarters of junior officers and clerks, situated outside the wardroom on either side of the deck, the space between the two steerage-rooms being known as the steerage-country.

Stem. The forward boundary of a ship, the continuation of the keel to the height of the deck.

Steps of Mast. Places into which the lower ends or heels of lower masts are secured or stepped. The fore and main masts are stepped at present in iron steps fitted over the main-keelson, with flanges to the sister-keelsons. The mizzen-mast step is a piece of timber secured to the orlop or berth deck beams.

Stern. The after-part of the ship.

Stern-post. The after-boundary of the ship, a continuation of the keel, tenoned into the latter and secured to it in addition by composition plates.

Sweep-pieces. Ledges of wood hinged to the inner edges of gun-ports to give additional facility in training the guns.

Taffrail. The rail around a ship's stern.

Tenon. The end of one piece of wood diminished and cut with shoulders to fit in a hole of another piece, called a mortise.

Thole-pin. Pins fitted in the gunwale of a boat, to be used with a rope ring or grommet as a rowlock.

Thwart. A cross-piece in a boat, used as a seat by the oarsmen.

Tiller. A bar of wood or iron which fits into the rudder-head and by which the steering is effected. (See Helm.)

Top. A platform at the eyes of the lower rigging, supported by the trestle-trees and cross-trees; the top-mast rigging sets up at each side of the top.

Top-gallant Forecastle. A deck raised over the forward end of the spar-deck extending from the bows nearly or quite to the fore-mast.

Top-rim. The forward edge of a top, rounded to prevent chafe.

Transom. A beam extending across the after-part of the ship.

Tree-nail. Pin of hard wood used as a fastening in the place of a metallic bolt.

Trestle-trees. Fore and aft pieces on each side of a mast resting on the hounds to support the rigging, cross-trees, etc.

Truck. A small wooden cap on a flag-staff or mast-head with holes or sheaves for halliards. A mast-head truck is also fitted to receive the spindle of the lightning-rod.

Ward-room. The quarters of the commissioned officers of a ship, usually occupying the after-part of the berth-deck. The rooms on the starboard side occupied by the line officers, those on the port side by the staff officers-the intervening space is styled the ward-room country.

Warping-chock. A block of wood, or metal casting, scored to receive a towline. Bridle-ports are fitted with such chocks, which can be removed when not in use.

Warrant-Officers' Rooms. Usually on the berth-deck, two on each side, forward of the steerage. The boatswain and gunner occupy the starboard, the carpenter and sail-maker the port rooms.

Waterways. Pieces of timber placed over the tops of the beams and secured to the beams and ship's side, filling the angle between the beams and the inside of the frame-timbers.

Wheel. A wheel to the axle of which are connected the tiller-or wheel-ropes by which the rudder is moved in steering.

Weigh. To weigh anything is to raise it-to weigh anchor.

Whiskers. Small spars projecting on either side of the bowsprit from the bees, extending the jib and flying-jib guys.

Wings of the Hold. That part of the hold or orlop which is nearest to the side.

Wythe. An iron fixture on the end of a mast or boom, bearing a ring through which another mast or boom is rigged out. Pronounced with.

Yoke. A cross-piece of timber or metal fitted on the rudder-head when a tiller cannot be used.

      Sails. The names of the sails and certain running rigging of a ship are given in the following references to Plate 3.

      Rig of Vessels (compare Plate 4). Vessels are divided according to their rig into numerous classes, of which the following may be mentioned as the principal types usually met with at sea:

      The Ship (1). Three masted, square rigged on all three masts.

      The Barque or Bark (2). Three masted, square rigged fore and main, fore and aft rig on mizzen.

      The Barkentine (3). Three masted, square rigged fore, fore and aft rig main and mizzen.

      The Brig (5). Two masted, square rigged.

      The Brigantine. Same as brig but without a square mainsail.

      The Hermaphrodite Brig (6). Two masted, square rigged fore, fore and aft rig main.

      The Topsail Schooner (7). Two masted, square rigged forward, but with a fore and aft foresail.

      The Schooner. Two masted (8), three masted (4), or four masted fore and aft rig.

      The Sloop (9). One masted, fore and aft rig.

      Note. A vessel is said to be square rigged on a certain mast, when the sails set on that mast are bent to yards, and fore and aft rigged when the sails are bent to gaffs.

      The topsail yards of merchantmen are almost invariably double, the topsail being in two parts, the lower part bent to the lower topsail yard and not hoisted, the upper portion bent to the upper yard and hoisted, as in the case of a single topsail. The clews, or lower corners, of the upper topsail are shackled to the yard arms of the lower topsail yard.

      The Compass. A piece of steel which has been touched by a magnet, if free to move on a pivot, will point in a definite direction. To this direction, as a standard, all others may be referred, and any desired course thus followed.

      The Mariner's Compass is based upon this principle. It consists of the needle, which is attached to the under side of a card, Fig. 1, representing the horizon, and graduated with the thirty-two "points" of the compass. The North end, or pole, of the needle is fixed under the North point of the card. The needle and card are balanced on a pivot fixed vertically in the compass-box, or bowl, and the whole is protected by a glass covering.

      As the North mark of the compass-card always points with the needle to the North, the other marks will of course point to their respective parts of the horizon.

      The variation of the compass and its local errors are not noticed here, as they may be referred to in any book on Navigation.

      The Lubber's Point is a vertical line drawn on the inside of the bowl of the compass to correspond with the vessel's head; the point of the card coinciding with it shows the course steered, or the direction in which the ship is heading.

      To Box the Compass is to name the points in regular succession, beginning at one point and ending at the same; thus, commencing with north and going around with the sun, say: –

      Each point is further divided into half-points and quarter-points, and the fractional points are named upon the same principle as the points themselves; thus: –

      A quarter-point (or half-point) can obviously be named with reference to either one of the nearest whole points. Thus N. 1/4 E. would be defined also as N. by E. 3/4 N., and E. N. E. 1/2 E. would be recognized as E. by N. 1/2 N.

      The following are the usual rules for naming quarter-points: –

      1st. From East or West to the nearest whole point, use for quarter-points that name which ends with the word North or South. Thus, E. 1/4 S., not E. by S. 3/4 E.

      2d. From N. E., N. W., S. E., or S. W., to the nearest whole point use that name which ends with the nearest cardinal point. Thus, N. E. 1/2 N., not N. E. by N. 1/2 E.; N. W. 1/4 W., not N. W. by W. 3/4 N.

      3d. In all other cases use that name of the quarter or half-point which ends with the word East or West. Thus, E. S. E. 1/2 E., not E. by S. 1/2 S.

      A Dumb Compass is used at the mast-heads, taffrail, &c., for taking relative bearings. It consists of a compass-card painted on a board or cut on a copper plate.

      Relative Bearings. In referring to the position of an object, the direction of the wind, &c., with reference to the ship, use is frequently made of what are called relative bearings, instead of giving the directions in compass-points.

      In Fig. 2a ship is represented as heading North. A lighthouse or other object if seen bearing North would also be said to bear, from that ship: Ahead.

If seen bearing N. by E.: One point on starboard bow.
Bearing N. N. E.: Two points on starboard bow.
Bearing N. E. by N.: Three points on starboard bow.
Bearing N. E.: Broad off starboard bow.
Bearing N. E. by E.: Three points forward of starboard beam.
Bearing E. N. E.: Two points forward of starboard beam.
Bearing E. by N.: One point forward of starboard beam.
Bearing East: Abeam.
Bearing E. by S. One point abaft starboard beam.
Bearing E. S. E.: Two points abaft starboard beam.
Bearing S. E. by E.: Three points abaft starboard beam.
Bearing S. E.: Broad off starboard quarter.
Bearing S. E, by S.: Three points on starboard quarter.
Bearing S. S. E.: Two points on starboard quarter.
Bearing S. by E.: One point on starboard quarter.
Bearing South: Astern.

      And similarly at N. by W., N. N. W. &c., one point on port bow, two points on port bow, &c., &c.

      To find the direction of the wind, when ship is close hauled. – A square-rigged ship, when close hauled, can usually lie no nearer the wind than six points; therefore, if a ship be close hauled on the starboard tack, and her head at North, count six points thence to the right hand, or towards East, and you will find the wind at E. N.E. The wind then forms with the keel an angle of six points, so that if a line at Fig. 2, Plate 6, represents the ship's keel, (c) will be the yard when braced up, and (d) the direction of the wind. In practice the yard is braced up sharper, to make the sail stand to better advantage.

      When the ship is on the port tack with her head North, the points are counted on the opposite or left side, and the wind is W. N.W. If the ship's head be put to any point of the compass, counting six points to the right or left hand, according. as the ship is on the starboard or port tack, will always give the direction of the wind when the vessel is close hauled.

      When the wind is E. by N., in Fig. 2, the ship is then one point free, because her head is seven points from the wind. With the wind East in the figure, it is said to be two points free, or abeam, as shown in the remarks on relative bearings. If the wind is at S. in the figure, it is said to be aft.

      After learning to box the compass with the sun, go around against the sun, or from North towards West, and practise with such questions as the following: Ship on the port tack, heading S. W. 3/4 W., how will she head on the other tack? With the wind at S.W. and steering due East,

the ship is hauled up, two points and a half, how will she head? Close hauled, with the port tacks aboard, heading S. S.E., you bear up, keeping away six points, how will the ship head, and how will the wind be with reference to the ship's beam? Ship heading N. N.E. on the starboard tack, a lighthouse is reported from aloft bearing two points abaft the lee beam, how will it bear by compass, &c., &c.?

      Soundings, to ascertain the depth of water on entering or leaving a port, or in any case where there is supposed to be less than twenty fathoms of water, are taken by the hand lead, Fig. 3, a quartermaster or forecastle-man being stationed in the main chains for the purpose; the lead weighing, from seven to fourteen pounds, and the line being from twenty. to thirty fathoms in length. Hand lead lines are marked as follows:

At 2 fathoms from the lead, with 2 strips of leather.
At 3 fathoms from the lead, with 3 strips of leather.
At 5 fathoms from the lead, with a white rag.
At 7 fathoms from the lead, with a red rag.
At 10 fathoms from the lead, with leather, having a hole in it.
At 13 fathoms from the lead, as at 3.
At 15 fathoms from the lead, as at 5.
At 17 fathoms from the lead, as at 7.
At 20 fathoms from the lead, with 2 knots.
At 25 fathoms from the lead, with one knot.
At 30 fathoms from the lead, with three knots.
At 35 fathoms from the lead, with one knot.
At 40 fathoms from the lead, with four knots. And so on.

      These are known as the "marks." The numbers omitted, as 1, 4, 6, 8, &c., are called the "deeps," and they are spoken of together as the "marks and deeps of the lead line."

      All lead lines should be marked when wet.

      Soundings by the hand-lead are taken while the vessel has headway on, the leadsman throwing the lead forward, and getting the depth as the vessel passes, while the line is nearly perpendicular. He communicates to the officer the soundings obtained, thus:

      If the depth corresponds with either of the above marks, he says, "By the mark 5 or 7. If the mark is a little below the surface, he says, "Mark under water 5 or 7." If the depth is greater, or one half more than any of the marks, he says, "And a quarter," or "And a half 5 or 7." If the depth is a quarter less, he says, "Quarter less 5 or 7." If he judges by the distance between any two of the marks

that the depth of water is 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, or 21 fathoms, he says, "By the deep 4," &c.

      On the hand-lead line there are nine "marks" and eleven "deeps."

      Require the soundings to be given in a sharp, clear and decided tone of voice. In steamers, this is certainly the best plan, for while the old-fashioned "song" is being drawled out, the vessel may run ashore.

      The Breast-band or Rope, generally the former, made of canvas, secured at both ends to the rigging, supports the body of the leadsman while heaving the hand-lead.

      Besides the breast-band, it is a very good plan to have fitted, in connection with it, a tarpaulin apron, to cover the "leadsman" from the feet to the waist. This keeps him dry and adds much to his comfort.

      On going into the chains for the purpose of sounding, the leadsman should see the breast-rope properly secured; his line clear, and the end made fast. If at night, he should take the distance from the breast-rope to the water's edge; then at each cast deduct this distance from the mark at hand and give it as the true sounding.

      The Coasting Lead is used in depths from 25 to 100 fathoms, the lead weighing from 25 to 50 pounds.

      The Deep-sea Lead is used in depths of over 100 fathoms, and weighs from 80 to 150 pounds.

      Both coasting and deep-sea (pronounced "dipsey") leads are hollowed out at the base to receive an arming of tallow. When the lead strikes, the tallow becomes coated with sand, pebbles, shells or other substances which show the character of the bottom. This information, compared with the description of the sea bottom given on the chart, may prove of value in determining the ship's position. Instead of being hollowed out at the bottom, the deep-sea lead may have a specimen cup, of brass, at the end, as shown in Fig. 4. The coasting and deep-sea lines are marked alike as follows:

      10 fathoms, one knot.
      20 fathoms, two knots.
      30 fathoms, 3 knots, &c., &c., and at every intermediate five fathoms by
small strands. At 100 fathoms the line is marked with a piece of red bunting.

      To Sound with the Deep-sea Lead. The men are ranged outside the vessel from the weather mizzen chains to the cathead. The line is passed forward outside and clear of everything. The lead is sent forward on deck, and the line bent to it by the captain of the forecastle. The line is then hauled forward, each man collecting a coil of several fathoms in his hand, commencing forward, until the officer thinks there is line enough out. It is then snatched in a small snatch-block, Fig. 5, secured to the

after mizzen rigging, or to the weather spanker yang, the remaining part of it being coiled down in a tub or rack, or wound on a reel, clear for running. Everything being in readiness, and the vessel's headway sufficiently deadened, the officer orders, Stand by! Heave! The captain of the forecastle heaves the lead as far forward as he can, and at the same time cries, Watch-ho! Watch! And each man, as the line runs out from his hand, holds it clear of the side, and repeats the cry, Watch-ho! Watch! In the mean while, the line runs out until the lead touches the bottom, or until a sufficient quantity has been run out to satisfy the officer that no bottom has been found. The men then lay aft and man the line! and walk forward with it; a petty officer being stationed by it, to note the depth of water by the first mark that comes in.

      If bottom has been found, it will instantly be known by the line bringing up suddenly in running out, or by the arming on the lead after it is hauled up; by which the nature of the bottom is known.

      To get sounding by the deep-sea lead while lying to in a gale, or in any case when the vessel drifts much to leeward, it is proper to pass the line from to windward around the stern, and then forward on the lee side, and to heave the lead from to leeward, which will bring the line nearly perpendicular by the time the lead touches the bottom.

      In heaving the deep-sea lead, the men stationed in the chains should be cautioned not to let the line go until they feel the lead take it, for if the ship is in much shoaler water than was anticipated, it is thus detected at once.

      Besides the common lead, there are a variety of "patents" for sounding; the one known as Massey's lead, being about the most successful. In this, a machine is attached to the lead, and a fan set in motion by its descent. The motion is communicated to a register wheel, and the number of fathoms corresponding to the depth of water is pointed out by an indicator. This lead should also have a good arming of tallow to bring up specimens of the bottom.

      The Drift Lead. While at single anchor, it is proper always to have a lead somewhat heavier than the hand-lead, say from fourteen to twenty pounds, over the side, and resting on the bottom, with a man to attend it. Of course, this is only necessary in a stiff breeze, or at night. But in a vessel-of-war, it should be observed as a standing rule, without regard to the weather. By this you will have instant notice if the vessel parts her cable or drags her anchor.

      Various methods have been proposed for measuring the rate at which a ship sails; but that most in use is by the Log and Glass.

      The Log is a flat piece of thin board, of a sectoral or quandrantal form, Figs. 6a and b, Plate 5, loaded, on the circular side, with lead sufficient to make it swim upright in the water. To this is fastened a line, about 150 fathoms long, called the log-line, which is divided into certain spaces called knots, and is wound on a reel, Fig. 7, which turns very easily. The Glass is of the same form as an Hour-Glass, Fig. 8, and containing such a quantity of sand as will run through the hole in its neck in twenty-eight seconds.

      Marking the Log-Line. Previous to marking a new Log-line, it is soaked in water for a few days, in order to get it in the condition it will be when in use. From fifteen to twenty fathoms is allowed for "stray-line;" and then the length of a knot determined (for the 28-second glass) by the following proportion, viz.: As the number of seconds in an hour is to the number of feet in a sea mile, so is the length of the glass to the length of a knot, or,

therefore the length of the knot is 47 feet 4 inches for the 28-second glass.

      The velocity of the ship is estimated in knots and tenths of a knot.

      The limit of "stray-line" is marked by a piece of red bunting about six inches long, and each length of 47 feet 4 inches after that by a piece of fish-line with one, two, three, etc., knots in it, according to, its number from the "stray-line."

      Each length of 47 feet 4 inches (the "knot") is subdivided into five equal parts, and a small piece of white bunting about two inches long is turned into the line at every two-tenth division thus formed.

      Always, before leaving port, the Navigator has the line thoroughly soaked for a few days, and then all the marks placed at their proper distances. He also compares all the sand-glasses with a watch, and if any should be incorrect, he makes them run the proper time by taking out or putting in sand, as the case requires. During daylight, especially in very damp weather, it is preferable to use a watch to a sand-glass for noting the time. Errors of the glass due to moisture are commonly corrected by drying it at the galley.

      Heaving the Log. – To find the ship's speed is

called heaving the log, and is thus performed: One man holds the reel, and another the glass; an officer of the watch throws the log over the ship's stern, on the lee side, and when he observes the stray line is run off (allowed to carry the log out of the eddy of the ship's wake), and the red rag is gone off, he cries, Turn; the glass-holder answers, Turn; and watching the glass, the moment it is run out, says, Up. The reel being immediately stopped, the last mark run off shows the number of knots, and the distance of that mark from the rail is estimated in tenths. Then the knots and tenths together show the distance the ship has run the preceding hour, if the wind has been constant. But if the wind has not been the same during the whole hour, or interval of time between heaving the log, or if there has been more sail set or handed, a proper allowance must be made. Sometimes, when the ship is before the wind, and a great sea setting after her, it will bring home the log. In such cases, it is customary to allow one mile in ten, and less in proportion if the sea be not so great. Allowance ought also to be made, if there be a head sea.

      This practice of measuring a ship's rate of sailing, is founded upon the following principle, that the length of each knot is the same part of a. sea mile;^* as twenty-eight seconds is of an hour.

      In heaving the log, you must be careful to veer out the line as fast as the chip will take it; for if it be left to turn the reel itself, it will come home and deceive you in your reckoning. You must also be careful to measure the log-line pretty often, lest it stretch and deceive you in the distance. Like regard must be had that the glass be just 28 seconds; otherwise no accurate account of the ship's way can be kept. The glass is much influenced by the weather, running slower in damp weather than in dry. The glass may be examined by a watch, as above stated, or by the following method: –Fasten a plummet on a line, and hang it on a nail, observing that the distance between the nail and middle of the plummet be 39 1/8 inches; then swing the plummet, and notice how often it swings while the glass is running out, and that will be the number of seconds measured by the glass.

      If the vessel's speed is greater than four knots the fourteen-second glass is used instead of the twenty-eight second, and the number of knots run out is doubled to ascertain the actual rate of sailing, as the line is graduated for the twenty-eight second glass. The twenty-eight and fourteen second glasses are called respectively the long and short glasses.

      The Patent Log is now in constant use, especially on board steamers. It should be rigged out by a spar, so as to clear the wake, and care taken to haul it in whenever the ship is stopped.

      Massey's Patent Log is composed of a brass wedge-shaped box, having within three cogged wheels, acting on each other in such proportion that a total revolution of one completes a division of the next (or one-twentieth), a revolution of the next, one-eighth, registering thus from one hundred and sixty miles to tenths, and decimal parts; the action is by the rotation of a spindle with four spirally-fixed wings (termed the rotation, or fly), which turns an endless screw in the box, acting directly on the decimal wheel. It is towed astern by a stout lead line of sixty fathoms, and is registered every time the course is changed, angles taken, &c., but should not be reset until the twenty-four hours have elapsed, or the ship anchors, or goes less than three knots-when it becomes uncertain from not towing horizontally.

      When great accuracy is required it is well to use two logs, putting one overboard as the other is hauled up, as when the course is changed, etc.

      The Taffrail Log, Fig. 9. This is a mechanical log of the same character as Massey's, but it has the advantage of towing only the fly, the registering apparatus being at the inboard end of the trailing line so that it can be easily read without hauling in the line. In one patent of this kind there is placed between the register and fly a conical hollow metal piece upon which the vibrations due to pitching are taken.

      Registering logs are frequently made to strike a bell at every mile or five miles of the run.

      Among the various speed indicators which, like the common log, are useful in showing changes of speed, the instrument invented by Ensign Hogg, U. S. Navy, has given very satisfactory results, and may be described as follows:

      Fig. 10 shows a sailing vessel with the vacuum instrument represented in Fig. 11, towed astern by a hollow gum tube, the length of which for the largest vessels is 75 feet. The tube is supported in the water at low speeds by the buoy in Fig. 12. The mercurial gauge, Fig. 13, is on board the vessel; at present a metallic gauge is generally substituted.

      The action of the speed indicator is as follows: The water rushing through the instrument at A, Fig. 11, causes a vacuum at the small end of the mouth-piece B. This vacuum communicates by means of the gum-tube with the vacuum-gauge on deck, and the greater the vacuum, the greater the speed. The graduations on the vacuum-gauge are found by experiment.

      The only difference with a steamer is that the rubber tube is rigged out about three feet by an outrigger from the ship's side, and the vacuum instrument is towed alongside.

      The Ground Log is the common log line with a hand-lead attached, and is used in tideways and currents, in soundings, to ascertain the vessel's speed over the ground.

      There are four varieties of rope in the United States naval service: that made of the fibres of the hemp plant; the Manilla rope, made of the fibres of a species of the wild banana; hide rope, made of strips of green hide, and wire rope.

      In some countries, ropes made of horse hair, of the fibrous husk of the cocoanut, called coir-rope, and of tough grasses, are quite common. In our own country, rope has been made from the flax and cotton plants. The metals have also been put in requisition, copper-wire rope being used for particular purposes, principally for lightning conductors, and iron and steel wire are in general use for standing rigging; steel wire being some fifty per cent. stronger than iron wire of the same size.

      Of the many vegetable substances that are adapted to rope-making, the best is hemp-hemp-rope possessing in a remarkable degree the essential qualities of flexibility and tenacity.

      Hemp in its transit from its native fields to the ropewalk passes through the operations of dew-rotting, scotching and hackling. In the first process water dissolves the glutinous matter that binds the fibrous portion to the woody core, thus partly setting the fibres free; scotching breaks the stalk and separates it still further from the fibre, and hackling consists in combing out the hemp to separate the long and superior fibres from the short and indifferent ones or tow.

      The hemp of commerce is put up in bundles of about 200 lbs. each. If good, it will be found to possess a long, thin fibre, smooth and glossy on the surface, and of a yellowish green color; free from "spills" or small pieces of the woody substance; possessing the requisite properties of strength and toughness, and inodorous.

      Russian and Italian hemp are considered the best, for the generality of purposes. Rope made from the best quality of Russian hemp, is more extensively used in the navy than any other kind.

      Italian hemp is only used in the navy for packing for engines, its cost being more than double that of Russian hemp.

      The Native American dressed hemp, easily distinguished

      Cotton is a poor substitute for hemp, in rope-making, lacking its strength and durability. It retains moisture when once wet, and is liable to rot.

      Flax is used sometimes for deep-sea sounding-lines, though reeled piano wire has replaced it for this purpose where great depths are measured.

      Sail Twine is made of cotton or flax.

      The size of Rope is denoted by its circumference, and the length is measured by the fathom. The cordage allowed in the equipment of a man-of-war ranges from 1 1/4 (15-thread) to 10 inches inclusive.

      For a brief description of the process of rope-making, see Appendix A.

      Varieties of Rope. In rope-making the general rule is to spin the yarn from right over to left. All rope yarns are therefore right-handed. The strand, or ready, formed by a combination of such yarns, becomes left-handed. Three of these strands being twisted together form a right-handed rope, known as plain-laid rope. Fig. 14, Plate 7.

      White Rope. Hemp rope, when plain-laid and not tarred in laying-up, is called white rope, and is the strongest hemp cordage. It should not be confounded with Manilla. It is used for log-lines and signal halliards. The latter are also made of yarns of untarred hemp, plaited by machinery to avoid the kinking common to new rope of the ordinary make. This is called "plaited stuff," or "signal halliard stuff."

      The tarred plain-laid ranks next in point of strength, and is in more general use than any other. The lighter kinds of standing rigging, much of the running rigging, and many purchase falls are made of this kind of rope.

      Cable-laid or Hawser-laid Rope, Fig. 15, is left-handed rope of nine strands, and is so made to render it impervious to water, but the additional twist necessary to lay it up seems to detract from the strength of the fibre, the strength of plain-laid being to that of cable-laid as 8.7 to 6; besides this, it stretches considerably under strain.

      Back-handed Rope. In making the plain laid, it was said that the readies were left-handed, the yarns and the rope itself being right-handed. If, instead of this, the ready is given the same twist the yarn has (right-handed), then, when brought together and laid up, the rope must come left-handed. This is called left-handed or back-handed rope. It is more pliable than the plain-laid,

less liable to kinks and grinds when new, and is allowed, in the navy, for reeving off lower and topsail braces.

      Shroud-laid. Rope, Fig. 16, Plate 7, is formed by adding another strand to the plain-laid rope. But the four spirals of strands leave a hollow in the centre, which, if unfilled, would, on the application of strain, permit the strands to sink in, and detract greatly from the rope's strength, by an unequal distribution of strain. The four strands are, therefore, laid up around a heart, a small rope, made soft and elastic, and about one-third the size of the strands.

      Experiments show that four-stranded rope, when under 5 inches, is weaker than three-stranded of the same size; but from 5 to 8 inches, the difference in strength of the two kinds is trifling, while all above 8 inches is considered to be equal to plain-laid when the rope is well made.

      Four-stranded rope is now but little used except for lifts, preventer-parrels, Jacob's ladders and rigging laniards.

      Tapered Rope is used where much strain is brought on only one end. That part which bears the strain is full-sized, tapering off to the hauling part, which is light and pliable. Fore and main tacks and sheets are made of tapered rope.

      Twice-laid Rope is made from second-hand yarns. This rope may be readily known by the different shades of color of the yarns, but it is often difficult to determine, by mere inspection, whether it is relaid from what was good rope, and, consequently, still good, or made up from junk or condemned rigging, and worthless. Twice-laid rope is only met with on board ship when necessity has compelled its purchase on foreign stations.

      Manilla Rope seems to be better adapted to certain purposes on board ship than hemp, being more pliable, buoyant, causing less friction, and not so easily affected by moisture. It is used for hawsers, tow-lines, and for light-running rigging and gun-tackle falls. Manilla is now less used in the navy than formerly. The Book of Allowances states that the cheap first cost of Manilla as compared with hemp is more than compensated by the greater market value of the hemp when worn-out. This statement is not correct if applied to the current relative values of hemp and Manilla junk in this country.

      Hide Rope is made of strips cut by machinery from green hides. Formerly used for topsail tyes, and for tailing on to such ropes as are exposed to much chafe in some particular part, as topsail sheets, etc., it is now allowed only for wheel ropes. Its strength is about one-third that of hemp.

      Hide rope requires care to keep it in good order, and should not be exposed to the weather unnecessarily. It should be given a lick of thin tar (Swedish preferred)

as often as may be necessary, usually about twice a year.

      Avoid serving the splices of hide rope. When spare wheel ropes are stowed away they should be well oiled and headed up in a barrel to preserve them from rats and mice.

      One set of wheel-ropes is now supplied of flexible iron wire-rope.

      Bolt Rope is the name applied to rope used for roping sails. It is made of the best hemp and finest yarns, and is the most superior kind of cordage.

      Wire Rope for general use in the navy is made from one quarter to seven inches, inclusive, in circumference, those being the maximum and minimum sizes likely to be needed.

      Each strand has a hemp heart, and the rope itself has a heart usually of the same material; this adds greatly to its pliability.

      When first introduced, it was thought that great difficulty would be found in manipulating wire rigging, but our best riggers cut, fit and splice it as readily as they do hemp rigging.

      In its less bulk and cost, wire rope has decided advantages over hemp for the standing rigging. of ships, and now all vessels of the navy are provided with standing rigging of wire.

      Besides the great advantage that wire rigging possesses of not being affected by the heat and sparks from the smokestack, its durability is at least three or four times that of common rope, and, when once completely set, does not require further pulling up.

      Wire rope may be used for strapping blocks, and will be found neat and serviceable.

      In Appendix A will be found a table of comparative dimensions of chain cables, hemp, iron and steel rope, with breaking strains and weights per fathom.

      Small Stuff is the general term applied to small rope. It is particularized by the number of threads or yarns which it contains, and is further known either as ratline stuff or seizing stuff.

      Ratline Stuff is three-stranded, right-handed small stuff of 24, 21, 18, 15 or 12 threads. It is measured by the fathom.

      Seizing Stuff, Is of 9, 6, 4 or 2 threads, and is measured by the pound. While all varieties of small stuff may be spoken of as "24, 18, 9, &c., thread stuff," the smaller varieties have also special names, according to their number of threads and the manner of laying up. We have:

      Hambroline, two-stranded, right-handed, and

      Roundline, three-stranded, right-handed. Both of

these are made of fine back or left-handed yarns, so that the stuff itself is right-handed.

      Marline, two-stranded, left-handed.

      Housline, three-stranded, left-handed. Both of these are made of finer dressed hemp, and have altogether a neater, cleaner and smoother appearance than spun-yarn.

      Spun-Yarn is also left-handed, and of two, three or four strands. Spun-yarn is always in great demand aboard ship, being used for seizings, service, and a great variety of purposes. In its manufacture, "long tow," as it is termed, or the tow of the first hackling, is hackled again, and laid up loosely, left-handed, and to keep it from opening is well tarred and rubbed down.

      For fine seizings and service, hambroline and roundline (right-handed), or marline and housline (left-handed) are the kinds of small stuff selected. For ordinary purposes, spun-yarn is used.

      Nettles, used for hammock clews, and where very neat stops are required, are made by laying up two or three yarns in a taut twist with the thumb and fingers, and then rubbing it down smooth.

      Foxes, used for temporary seizings, making mats, sennit, gaskets, reefing beckets, boat gripes, bending studding sails, &c., are made of two or more yarns, as required, laid up by twisting by hand, and then well rubbed down with a piece of tarred parcelling.

      A Spanish Fox is a single yarn twisted up tightly in a direction contrary to its natural lay-that is, left-handed, and rubbed smooth. It makes a neat seizing, and is used for the end seizings of light standing rigging, and for small seizings generally.

      Rumbowline is the name sometimes applied to coarse, soft rope, made from outside yarns, to be used for temporary lashings, &c.

      Rogue's Yarn is a single untarred thread, sometimes placed in the centre of the rope, or in the centre of each strand, denoting government manufacture.

      Junk is supplied for the purpose of working up into various uses-such as for swabs, spun-yarn, nettle-stuff, lacings, seizings, earings, gaskets, &c. – of all of which the supply, in proper kind, is generally inadequate. Good junk is got out of such material as condemned hawsers-they having been necessarily made of the best stuff, and condemned before being much injured. Old rigging makes bad junk, not being condemned generally until much worn.

      Of the worst junk, swabs and spun-yarn should be made; of the best, nettle and seizing-stuff, lacings, earings, &c.

      Large junk, such as lengths of towlines, should be unlaid

before being put below, that it may admit of being snugly stowed.

      Shakings are odds and ends of yarns and small ropes, such as are found in the sweepings of the deck after work. They are collected, put in a bag kept for the purpose, and at certain times served out to the watch to be picked into Oakum, a good supply of which should always be on hand for any calking that may be required, for stuffing jackasses, boat's fenders, &c.

      Use of the Ropermaker's Winch, Fig. 18, Plate 7. A ship's winch, which will make very fair 2-inch rope, is about 15 inches in diameter. In the frame, which is double, are placed five hooks-the three upper ones for general use, the fourth for four-stranded rope, and the centre one for hardening up large rope after it has been laid up by the upper ones (the latter not being sufficiently strong for the purpose). The shanks of the hooks, between the two parts of the frame, are inserted in cogged barrels, which are turned by the wheel, one revolution of which gives nine to the hooks-any one of which can be thrown out of gear by hauling it back close to the after part of the frame.

      A loper is a swivel hook, Fig. 17 (a), which, by revolving freely, allows the strands to twine up together, by the twist put in them as the top is withdrawn.

      The top, Fig. 17 (b), is a conical piece of wood, scored on the outside for the reception of the strands. Its use is to keep the strands separate between it and the winch, and to regulate the amount of twist in the rope behind it, by being moved along either slowly or rapidly. When four-stranded rope is required, a hole is bored through the centre, as a lead for the heart.

      A length of junk being brought on deck, you proceed to unlay it by attaching the strands to separate hooks, and the loper to the other end-one hand holding back on it, and then heaving back-two hands following the rope down to separate the ends.

      Spun-Yarn is made by hooking all the yarns that compose it (according to the size required) upon one hook. You then heave round, the reverse way to the lay of the yarns (which in ordinary rope are all right-handed) until there is plenty of back turn in them, holding on the ends by hand; then rub down and make it up.

      In rubbing down, a boy puts the end of a strand over his shoulder, and walks away with it, another hand holding on the rubber (which is the end of the strand doubled up loose) round the stuff they are laying up.

      As many lengths of spun-yarn can, of course, be made at once as there are hooks on the winch.

      Nettle-Stuff. Hitch the yarns to separate hooks; let a couple of hands then take hold of them, and commencing close to the winch, walk back while it is hove round the

reverse way; the yarns are thus hove up the contrary way to what they were originally, to soften them; for when drawn out of rope, they are usually hard and angular; and would not lie square, or bear an equal strain, if laid up in that condition. When thus relaid, the ends are knotted together, the loper hooked on-one hand holding on to it, the top put in, the winch hove round the same way as at first, and the top moved along towards the winch. When up to it, the top is taken out, the yarns unhooked, and hitched to a single hook, then the winch hove round the opposite way to what you have just been heaving it, to harden the stuff up; rub down and make up.

      Thus, the yarn will be left-handed, and the nettle-stuff right-handed; for, though the winch is hove round the same way with both, the twist in the yarns causes them to unite abaft the top with the lay of contrary denomination, and the revolutions of the loper prevent the turn coming out again.

      Six (or nine) Thread Stuff: Put two (or three) yarns on three separate hooks; hold on the end by hand, keeping each of the three lengths separate, and heave round a reverse turn, as with spun-yarn. When sufficiently hove up, knot the ends together, hook on the loper, put in the top, and proceed as with nettle-stuff.

      Fig. 18 gives a general idea of the winch, in operation.

      General Remarks on Rope. The strength of a rope-yarn of medium size is equal to 100 lbs., but the measure of strength of a given rope is not, as might naturally be supposed, 100 lbs. multiplied by the number of yarns contained in the rope. The twist given to the yarn, after certain limits, diminishes its strength, as already stated, and with the best machinery it is scarcely possible that each yarn of the tope should bear its proper proportion of strain. The difference in the average strength of a yarn differs with the size of the rope. Thus, in a 12-inch rope, the average strength of each yarn is equal to 76 lbs., whereas, in a rope of half an inch, it is 104 lbs.

      Experiment has shown that by applying a constant, or even frequent, strain equal to half its strength, the rope will eventually break. This seems to be particularly the case with cable-laid rope, which is the weakest of all.

      It has been ascertained that a good selvagee, carefully made with the same number and description of yarns, as the common three-stranded plain-laid rope, possesses about the same degree of strength.

      It has been shown by experiment, that where a span is so placed as to form an angle less than 30 degrees, the strength of the two parts of the rope or chain of which it is composed, is less than the strength which one such part would have if placed in a direct line with the strain.

      Right-handed ropes are coiled down with the sun, or in

the direction pursued by the hands of a watch; the left-handed ropes, against the sun. An exception to this rule is in the hemp cables and hawsers, which are left-handed and are coiled away with the sun.

      In taking out new rigging from a coil, the end should be passed through the coil and coiled down against its lay to get the turns out.

      Avoid covering hemp rope with leather, especially green hide, unless good and well-tarred parcelling be interposed.

      Rope contracts very considerably by wetting it. Advantage may be, and often is, taken of this, by wetting lashings, which are required to be very taut and solid, and are not permanent, as the lashing of a garland on a lower mast for taking it in or getting it out. For the same reason in rainy weather, braces, halliards, sheets, clew-lines, and other rigging requiring it, should be slacked up to save an unnecessary strain on the rope, and avoid the risk of springing a yard or carrying something away.

      Running rigging has nothing to protect it from the effects of the weather, excepting, in hemp, the tar taken up in the process of manufacture, and after being wet the air should be allowed to circulate through it freely. Rope should never be stowed away until thoroughly dry.

      Running rigging, when not in actual use, should be kept neatly coiled down near the pin to which it belays, taking care always to capsize the coil that the running part may be on top, so that it may run clear. In port, during good weather, the rigging may be coiled down in flemish coils, that is, perfectly flat, as soon as the decks are dry enough in the morning, and left so until the decks are cleared up at seven bells in the afternoon, when the ends should be run out, the rope coiled down snugly and triced up in readiness for washing decks in the morning.

      When scrubbing clothes or hammocks, soap at times unavoidably gets on the rigging: it should be carefully washed off before the decks are dry.

      One rope may be rove by another by putting the two ends together, and worming three yarns or pieces of spun-yarn in the lay for three or four inches on each side, and clove-hitching the ends around the rope, or opening the strands and laying them in. This is always done when reeving new braces by old ones, and with running rigging generally.

      To Find the Breaking Strain of Government Rope:

      Untarred Hemp: Multiply the square of circumference in inches by 1371.4 = strength in pounds.

      Tarred Hemp: Use in above formula 1044.9 as the multiplier.

      Manilla Rope: Use 783.7 as the multiplier.

      Iron-wire Rope: Weight in pounds per fathom x by 4480 = strength in pounds, but if

      Steel-wire Rope, use 7098 as the multiplier. Or by the

      Practical Rule for ascertaining the Strength of Rope. The square of half the circumference gives the breaking strain of the weakest plain-laid rope in tons, and is therefore a safe rule.

      Thus, by the table, the breaking strain of a 6-inch rope is 10 tons, and by the rule (6/2)²=9 tons.

      The breaking strain of a 10-inch rope is, by the table, 28 tons, and by the rule (10/2)²=25 tons.

      No cordage should be subjected to a strain above one-third of its estimated strength.

      For ascertaining the Weight of Rope. Three-strand, plain-laid, 25-thread yarn, tarred. Multiply the square of the circumference by the length in fathoms, and divide by 4.24 for the weight in lbs.

      Ex. 2-inch rope, 113 fathoms. (2² x 113)/4.24 = 106 lbs. – actual weight, 105 lbs.

      The divisor for hempen cables is 4.79.

      A Practical Rule for determining the relative Strength of Chain and Rope. Consider the proportionate strength of chain and rope to be ten to one-using the diameter of the chain and the circumference of the rope. Half-inch chain may, therefore, replace five-inch rope.

      The absolute strength of chain, at the breaking point, may be found by dividing the square of the diameter in eighths, by 2.4 for round link crane chain, and by 2.7 for chain cable.

      To find the Weight a Rope will lift when rove as a Tackle: Multiply the weight the rope will sustain by the number of parts at the movable block, and subtract one-fourth of product for resistance.

      To find the size of Rope when rove as a Tackle to Lift a given Weight: Divide the weight to be raised by the number of parts at the movable block to get the strain on a single part, add one-third of this for the increased strain due to friction, and reeve the rope of the corresponding strength.

      To find what Number of parts of a small Rope are equal to a large Rope: Divide the square of the circumference of the larger rope by the square of the circumference of the smaller, and the result will be the number of parts of the smaller equal to one part of the larger.

      To find the Proportionate Strength of Wire and Hemp Ropes: Multiply the square of the circumference of a hemp rope by .223 for

iron wire, and by .12 for steel wire, and the square root of product will be the circumference of a wire rope of corresponding strength.

      The wire-rope referred to has a hemp heart.

      By multiplying the square of the circumference of a wire rope by 4.5 for iron wire and 8.4 for steel wire and extracting the square root of the product, the circumference of a hemp rope of corresponding strength may be obtained.

      To Knot a Rope Yarn, Fig 19, Plate 8. Split in halves the two ends of a rope-yarn, scrape them down with a knife, crotch and tie the two opposite ends; jam the tie and trim off the ends.

      An Over-hand Knot, Fig. 20, Plate 8. Pass the end of a rope (b) over the standing part (a) and through the bight above (c).

      Figure-of-Eight Knot, Fig. 21, Plate 8. Take the end of a rope (a) round the standing part (b), under its own part (d), and through the bight (c).

      A Reef Knot, Fig. 23, Plate 8. Make an overhand knot, as before directed, Fig. 22, round a yard or spar; bring the end (a), being the next towards you, over to the left, and (b) to the right, take (a) round (b), draw them taut, and it is done, Fig. 23. This knot is used in tying reef points and small stuff generally. Observe to bring the end out next its own part, otherwise it will be a Granny's Knot, which jams and is difficult to cast off.

      A Bow-Line Knot, Fig. 26, Plate 8. Take the end of the rope (a), Fig. 24, in the right hand, and the standing part (b) in the left, laying the end over the standing part; with the left hand turn a bight of the standing part over it, Fig. 25; lead the end round the standing part, through the bight again, and it will appear like Fig. 26. The bight turned in the standing part is often called a Cuckold's Neck.

      A Running Bow-Line Knot, Fig. 28, Plate 8. Take the end of a rope, Fig. 27, round the standing part (b) and through the bight (c); make the single bow-line knot upon the part (d), and it is done.

      A Bow-Line Knot upon the Bight of a Rope, Fig. 30, Plate 9. Take the bight (a) in one hand, Fig. 29, and the standing parts (b) in the other; throw a kink or Cuckold's Neck over the bight (a) with the standing parts, the same as for the single knot; take the bight (a) over the large bights (c, c), bringing it up again: it will then be complete, Fig. 30. The best way to sling a man by a bow-line is to shorten up one of the lower bights, using the lower part as a seat and putting the arms through the part next above.

      A Prolonge Knot, Fig. 31, Plate 9.

      A Bow-line Knot, formed with a bight to hook

into, as in Fig. 218, Plate 29, is used for heavy pulls, on the ends of rigging luffs, by riggers. Fig. 79, Plate 14, shows an ordinary bow-line knot formed over a ring-bolt to make a temporary stopper. Shove the bight through the ring-bolt, take a half hitch with the short end over the bight, then pass the short end through the bight. A handy knot when you wish to use a short end of a long coil.

      A Wall Knot. Unlay the end of a rope, Fig. 32, Plate 9, and with the strand (1) form a bight, holding it down on the side of the rope at (2); pass the end of the next (3) round the strand (1); the end of the strand (4) round the strand (3) and through the bight which was made at first by the strand (1); haul them rather taut, and the knot will then appear like Fig. 33.

      To Crown this knot, Fig. 35, Plate 9. Lay one of the ends over the top of the knot, Fig. 34, which call the first (a); lay the second (b) over it, and the third (c) over (b), and through the bight of (a); haul them taut, and the knot with the crown will appear like Fig. 35, which is drawn open, in order to render it more clear. This is called a Single Wall, and Single Crown.

      To Double-Wall this knot, Fig. 36, Plate 10. Take one of the ends of the single crown, suppose the end (b), bring it underneath the part of the first walling next to it, and push it up through the same bight (d); perform this operation with the other strands, pushing them up through two bights, and the knot will appear like Fig. 36, having a Double Wall and Single Crown.

      To Double-Crown the same knot, Fig. 37, Plate 10. Lay the strands by the sides of those in the single crown, pushing them through the same bights in the single crown, and down through the double walling; it will then be like Fig. 37, viz. single walled, single crowned, double walled, and double crowned. The first walling must always be made against the lay of the rope: the parts will then lie fair for the double crown. The ends are scraped down, tapered, marled, and served with spun yarn. This knot is often used for the ends of man-ropes, and hence frequently called a Man-rope Knot.

      Matthew Walker's Knot, Fig. 39, Plate 10. This knot is made by separating the strands of a rope, Fig. 38, taking the end (1) round the rope, and through its own bight, the end (2) underneath through the bight of the first, and through its own bight, and the end (3) underneath, through the bights of the strands (1 and 2), and through its own bight. Haul them taut, and they form the knot, Fig. 39. The ends are cut off. This is a handsome knot for the end of a laniard, and is generally used for that purpose.

      A Single Matthew Walker. With strands (1 and 2) form a Wall knot, omitting strand (3); then with strand (3) dip down, round all parts, and come out next its

own part, Fig. 40. Render the parts through, jam taut, lay up and whip the end, Fig. 41. This knot is used for bucket ropes, &c. It should have a leather washer around its neck when exposed to chafe.

      A Single Diamond Knot, Fig. 43, Plate 11. Unlay the end of a plain-laid rope for a considerable length, Fig. 42, and with the strands form three bights down its side, holding them fast. Put the end of strand (1) over strand (2), and through the bight of strand (3), as in the figure; then put the strand (2) over strand (3), and through the bight formed by the strand (1), and the end of (3) over (1), and through the bight of (2). Haul these taut, lay the rope up again, and the knot will appear like Fig. 43. This knot is used for the side ropes, jib guys, bell ropes, &c.

      A Double Diamond Knot, for the same purpose, Fig. 44, Plate 11. With the strands opened out again, follow the lead of the single knot through two single bights, the ends coming out at the top of the knot, and lead the last strand through two double bights. Lay the rope up again as before, to where the next knot is to be made, and it will appear like Fig. 44.

      A Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot, Fig. 47, Plate 11. Unlay two ends of a rope, and place the two parts which are unlaid, together, Fig. 45. Make a bight with the strand (1). Wall the six strands together, against the lay of the rope (which being plain-laid must be done from the right hand to the left), exactly in the same manner that the single walling was made with three; putting the second over the first, the third over the second, the fourth over the third, the fifth over the fourth, the sixth over the fifth, and through the bight which was made by the first; haul them rather taut, and the single walling will appear like Fig. 46; then haul taut. It must be then crowned, Fig. 47, by taking the two strands which lie most conveniently (5 and 2) across the top of the walling, passing the other strands (1, 3, 4, 6) alternately over, and under those two, hauling them taut; the crown will be exactly similar to the figure. It may be then double walled, by passing the strands (2, 1, 6, &c.) under the wallings on the left of them and through the same bights, when the ends will come up for the second crowning, which is done by following the lead of the single crown, and pushing the ends down through the walling, as before, with three strands. This knot, when double-walled, and crowned, is often used as a stopper knot, in the Merchant Service.

      A Stopper for a Stranded Foot or a Leech Rope, Fig. 48, Plate 12. This is made by double walling, without crowning, a three-stranded rope, against the lay, and stopping the ends together, as in the figure. The ends, if very short, are whipped without being stopped.

      A stopper knot on the end of a deck stopper is made as in Fig. 49, by a single crown and single wall. The ends are whipped singly and cut off. A deck stopper has a laniard spliced around the neck of the knot, and a hook and thimble spliced in the other. When made of wire rope, a deck stopper is fitted as in Fig. 50, where an iron toggle is spliced. into the end of the stopper in place of the knot.

      A Shroud Knot. Unlay the ends of two ropes, Fig. 51, placing them one within the other, drawing them close as for splicing; then single-wall each set of ends-those of one rope, against the lay (i.e. from left to right if the rope be cable-laid, as in the figure), round the standing part of the other. The ends are then opened out, tapered, marled down, and served with spun-yarn. This knot is used when a shroud is either shot or carried away. Fig. 54 and Fig. 55.

      A French Shroud Knot. Place the ends of two ropes as before, Fig. 51, drawing them close. Laying the ends on one side back upon their own part, single-wall the remaining ends around the bights of the other three and the standing part, and it will appear as in Fig. 52. When hauled taut, it appears as in Fig. 53. The ends are tapered, &c., as before. This knot is as secure as the other, and much neater.

      Hitching a Rope, Fig. 56, Plate 12, is performed. thus: Pass the end of a rope (b) round the standing part; bring it up through the bight, and seize it to the standing part at (d). This is called a Half-hitch. Two of these, one above the other, Fig. 57, are called Two Half-hitches or a Clove-hitch. Fig. 58 represents a half-hitch around a spar; Fig. 59, Plate 13, a clove-hitch, with a ratline around a shroud.

      A Timber-Hitch, Fig. 61, Plate 13. Take the end part of a rope (a) round a spar or timber-head, lead it under and over the standing part (b), pass several turns round its own part (c), and it is done, Fig. 60; when taut it appears as Fig. 61.

      A Round Turn and a Half-Hitch, Fig. 62, Plate 13. Used for bending a hawser to the ring of an anchor.

      A Timber and Half-Hitch, Fig. 63, Plate 13. Used for bending a line to a spar, for towing, &c.

      A Blackwall Hitch, Fig: 65, Plate 13. Form a bight (c), Fig. 64. by putting the end (a) across under the standing part (b). Put this bight over the hook of a tackle, Fig. 65, letting the part (b) rest upon it, and the part (a) be

jammed by the standing part at the cross. This is sometimes used with a laniard, when setting up the shrouds.

      A Double Black-wall Hitch, Fig. 66, Plate 13. Under a heavy strain a blackwall hitch is likely to carry away or slip, so that a Bill hitch, Fig. 67, is preferred. This is simply a marlinspike hitch [see below], with the hook thrust into the bight, the bight shoved well up on the hook. It is still better, however, to use a strap when a heavy strain is expected.

      A Cat's Paw, for the same purpose, Fig. 70, Plate 13. Lay the end of a rope (a), Fig. 68, over the standing part (b), forming the bight (e), take the side of the bight (c) in the right hand, and the side (d) in the left, turn them over from you three times, and there will be a bight in each hand (c d), Fig. 69. Through these put the hook of a tackle, Fig. 70.

      A Sheep Shank, Fig. 71, Plate 14. This is made for shortening a back-stay, &c. – a half-hitch is taken with the standing parts (a) round the bights (b), when it will appear like the figure.

      A Rolling Hitch, Fig. 73, Plate 14. With the end of a rope (a), Fig. 72, take a half-hitch round the standing part (b), take another turn through the same bight, jamming it between the parts of the hitch; when hauled taut, it will appear like Fig. 73. The end may be taken round the standing part, or stopped to it. It is thus a tail-jigger is clapped on a rope, or fall, to augment the purchase. This is a good hitch for a stopper, as it will not slip, and is in very general use. Fig. 74, Plate 13, shows how a stopper is passed, one of the hitches being omitted.

      A Marling-Spike Hitch, Fig. 75, Plate 14. Always used in heaving on seizings. The spike is used as a pry, to heave the seizing taut.

      A Harness Hitch, Fig. 76, Plate 14.

      A Marling Hitch, Fig. 77, Plate 14, is used in marling down the yarns left out from a splice; for the marling put over parcelling; and for making selvagee straps, &c. It is the same as used for lashing up hammocks, Fig. 78, where seven such turns are allowed.

      A Weaver's Hitch. See Sheet-Bend.

      Hitching the End of a Rope. Trim the end off with a knife to the shape of a cone then, with a sail-needle and twine, stitch it around with a loop-stitch, first taking a few round turns with the twine. When finished it will resemble Fig. 80, Plate 14. All running rigging have the ends hitched to prevent unlaying, as in the figure, instead of the ordinary whipping. All the gun-tackle falls should have their ends hitched, as it is neater and better than the ordinary whipping.

      To Hitch over a Ring-Bolt, Fig. 81, Plate 14. A ring-bolt is usually hitched over with either two or

three ends. With two ends,-after seizing or hitching the ends you are not working on to the ring-bolt, you commence by taking a left-handed hitch, Fig. 82, with one of the tails, keeping the cross on the centre of the bolt, which brings the end out to the right; you then double this end back over its own part to the left, bring up the other tail over this, take a hitch as with the first, double it back, bring up the first end, and so go on, taking alternate hitches with each, and bringing the end out to the right with each hitch.

      With three ends, you begin by taking a left-handed hitch with the first leg, a right-handed hitch with the second, Fig. 83, then a left-handed with third, right-handed with first,-left, second,-right, third,-and so on, each hitch being passed in the opposite way to the preceding one-two ends and one end alternately lying on each side. The ends are finished off by scraping them down and either passing a whipping or working a Turk's head round them. When finished: it has the appearance shown in Fig. 81.

      Kackling, Fig. 84, Plate 15. To prevent chafe, secure one end and hitch right and left handed, alternately.

      A Sheet Bend or Single Bend, Fig. 85, Plate 15. Pass the end of a rope (a) through the bight of another rope (b), then round both parts of the rope (c d), and down through its own bight. It is sometimes called also a Becket-bend, sometimes a Weaver's Hitch.

      A Double Bend, Fig. 87, Plate 15, is simply taking the end around a second time. The single bend is the most common one in use. The standing part of most purchase falls are thus secured to the becket in the strap of the purchase block, as in Fig. 86.

      A Fisherman's Bend, Fig. 88, Plate 15. With the end part of a rope take two turns (c) round a spar; a half-hitch round the standing part (b), and under the turns (c); then another half-hitch round the standing part (b). This is sometimes used for bending the studding-sail halliards to the yard, but more frequently for bending a hawser to the ring of an anchor, in which case the end should be stopped down with spun-yarn, Fig. 89.

      The Studding Sail Halliard Bend, Fig. 90, Plate 15, is preferred to all others for bending halliards to yards, as it is safe and snug.

      A Carrick Bend, Fig. 92, Plate 15. Form a bight (c), Fig. 91, by laying the end of a rope (a) across the upper surface of its standing part (b). Lay. the end (e) of another rope (d) under (a and b); then following the lead of

the dotted line, pass it over (a), through the bight, under (d), and up through the bight again, Fig. 92; (c) there representing the end (e) in the other figure. This bend is much used for hawsers.

      Hawsers are sometimes bent together thus, Fig. 93, Plate 15; the hawser has a half-hitch cast on it, a throat seizing clapped on the standing part (b) and a round one at (a). Another hawser is rove through the bight of this, hitched in the same manner, and seized to the standing part (d, e).

      And frequently the ends of two ropes (a, c), Fig. 94, Plate. 15, are laid together; a throat seizing is clapped on at (e), the end (a) is turned back upon the standing part (b), and the standing part (d) brought back to (c); another throat seizing is put on each, as at (1), Fig. 95, and a round seizing near the end at (g); the same security is placed on the other side.

      A Reeving Line Bend, Fig. 96, Plate 15, may also be used for small hawsers.

      In any case of bending hawsers, towlines, &c., the end should be securely stopped down with spun-yarn, using racking turns if much strain is anticipated.

      The best bend for a hawser to a kedge is a Fisherman's bend, Fig. 102, Plate 16, or a round turn and a couple of half-hitches, Fig. 101, with the end stopped down with spun-yarn.

      The clinch is made like Fig. 97, Plate 16; the end of a bridle or leech line, for example, is rove through the cringle (f), taken round the standing part (e), forming a circle; two round seizings (d) are then clapped on. The clinch on any rope is always made less than the cringle, &c., through which the rope is rove.

      There is an outside clinch, Fig. 98, Plate 16; and an inside clinch, Fig. 99.

      To Bend a Hemp Cable, use an inside clinch. The end of the cable (a), Fig. 100, Plate 16, is taken over and under the bight (b), forming the shape of the clinch, which must not be larger than the ring of the anchor (d). The seizings (c), which are called the BENDS, are then clapped on and crossed.

      Ropes are joined together, for different purposes, by uniting their strands in particular forms, which is termed Splicing. A splice is made by opening, and separating the strands of a rope's end, and thrusting them through the others which are not unlaid. The instruments used for this

are Fids, Marling-Spikes, and Prickers. Ropes reeving through blocks are joined by a long splice, otherwise a short splice is used. The splice is weaker than the main part of the rope by about one-eighth.

      A Fid is made according to the size of the rope it is meant to open and is tapered gradually from one end to the other, Fig. 103, Plate 16. It is commonly made of hard wood, such as Brazil, Lignum-vitae, &c., and sometimes of iron when of the latter, it has an eye in the upper end, like Fig. 104.

      A Marling-Spike is an iron pin of similar mould, on the upper end of which is raised a knob, called the Head, Fig. 105, Plate 16: or it may be similar to Fig. 104. It should always have a good laniard attached, and when used aloft, either slung around a man's neck, or to the rigging.

      A Pricker is made of metal, hard wood, or bone, and is used for light work.

      An Eye-Splice, Fig. 106, Plate 16, is made by opening the end of a rope, and laying the strands (e, f, g) at any distance upon the standing part forming the Collar or Eye (a). The end (h), Fig. 107, is pushed through the strand next to it (having previously opened it with a marling-spike); the end (i) is taken over the same strand, and through the second, Fig. 108; and the end (k) through the third, on the other side, Fig. 110. After sticking the ends once, one-half of the yarns may be cut away from the under part of the strands, and the remainder stuck again, in order to taper the splice and make it neater. In a four-stranded rope, the left-hand end lies under two strands, Fig. 111.

      An Eye-Splice in a Wire Rope. Wire requires more end for splicing than hemp. Stick the whole strand once, once two-thirds, and once one-third of a strand, which will make a good taper; then set it up and stretch it well, break off the yarns close to the rope by working them backwards and forwards quickly, two or three times; then parcel and serve over with spun yarn. After sticking the ends once, clap on a good stop around all to keep the parts close together while sticking the second time, and so on.

      A Short Splice. To splice the two ends of a rope together, proceed thus: Unlay the strands for a convenient length; then take an end in each hand, place them one within the other, Fig. 112, Plate 17, and draw them close. Hold the strand (a, b, c) and the end of the rope (d) fast in the left hand, or if the rope be large, stop them down with a rope-yarn; then take the middle end (1), pass it over the strand (a), and having opened it with the thumb, or a marling-spike, Fig. A, push it through under the strand (c), and haul it taut. Perform the same operation

with the other ends, by leading them over the first and next to them, and through under the second, on both sides; the splice will then appear like Fig. 113; but in order to render it more secure, the work must be repeated; leading the ends over the third and through the fourth; or the ends may be untwisted, scraped down with a knife, tapered, marled, and served over with spun-yarn.

      When there is to be no service used, the ends should be stuck twice each way, otherwise once and a half is sufficient. In anchor straps, and heavy straps generally, the ends are stuck twice and not trimmed off but whipped.

      In whipping the strands they should be split and one part of each whipped, or seized, with one part of another so as to enclose a strand of the rope on each side of which they appear.

      A Short Splice with a Four-Stranded Rope, Fig. 114, Plate 17.

      The Long Splice, Fig. 115, Plate 17. To make this splice, unlay the ends of two ropes to a convenient distance, and place them one within the other, as for the short splice; unlay one strand for a considerable length, and fill up the intervals which it leaves with the opposite strand next to it. For example, the strand (1) being unlaid for a particular length, is followed in the space which it leaves by the strand (2). The strand (3) being untwisted to the left hand, is followed by the strand. (4) in the same manner. The two middle strands, (5 and 6), Fig. C, are split; an over-hand knot is cast on the two opposite halves, and the ends led over the next strand and through the second, as the whole strands were in the short splice; the other two halves are cut off. When the strand (2) is laid up to the strand (1), they are divided, knotted, and the ends cut off in the same manner; and so with 3 and 4. This splice is used for lengthening a rope which reeves through a block, or sheave-hole, the shape of it being scarcely altered. After splicing, the ends should not be trimmed off until after the splice has been subjected to a good strain.

      The following is somewhat neater. Fig. 117, Plate 18. Unlay the ends alike, and marry them together; unlay a strand on each side, and lay the strand of the Other end, that is opposite to it, up in the lay that it comes out of, making both equidistant from the centre pair of strands, which you do not touch. Twist each pair up as you have done with them, to keep them in their places, and grease the strands. For a large rope, such as the fore brace, instead of knotting the strands, merely lay them alongside each other in the score of the rope, then put the ends in once, a half, and a quarter, and back it with the remaining quarter of a strand to taper it off. In splicing, instead of laying a strand over one, and under the next, you back it by putting the strand in left-handed, under the strand you

would otherwise have laid it over, Fig. 118; which gives it an exceedingly neat and serviceable finish.

      The same with four strands, Fig. 119, Plate 18.

      A Cut or Bight Splice, Fig. 120, Plate 18. Cut a rope in two, and, according to the size of the collar or eye you mean to form, lay the end of one rope upon the standing part of the other, and push the ends through, between the strands, in the same manner as for the eye-splice, shown in Fig. 106, Plate 16. This forms a collar or eye (u) in the bight of the rope. The yarns left out from the strands should be scraped, marled down and served over, when neatness is required.

      A Horse-Shoe Splice, or span-splice, Fig. 121, is formed by splicing the two ends of a piece of rope into each side of the bight of another rope, where an eye is to be formed. The length of rope used is one-third the length of the eye required, with twice the round of the rope on each end, in addition, for splicing.

      To Long-Splice a Three and a Four-Stranded Rope Together. Unlay the ends of the two ropes to a sufficient length and crotch them; unlay one strand of the three-s branded, and fill the space with a strand of the four-stranded rope; then unlay a strand of the four and fill up from the three-stranded rope; there remains two strands of the four, and one of the three; divide the single strand by taking out one-third, with which knot to one of the remaining pair, then unlay the other one, and fill up with the remaining two-thirds; knot and stick once, stretch well, and trim off.

      Another way is to work three strands as usual, and stick the fourth strand where it lies. The first plan is the better.

      To Short-Splice a Three and a Four-Stranded Rope. Unlay the ends, and divide one of the three strands in half, making four strands, and proceed to splice.

      Lengthening a Rope with an Additional Strand, Fig. 122, Plate 18. Cut a strand at 1, unlay until you come to 2, and cut another strand; unlay both to 3 (equal to the distance from 1 to 2, or thereabouts), and there cut the last strand separate the parts, and they will appear as in Fig. 122, B. Measure off the increased length required from 1, mark it (a), and bring the end of the left-hand piece (b) down to (a), and lay it in. The second strand, at 2, must have been cut sufficiently far from (a) to allow end enough for knotting and laying in. Twist the ends (c and b) up together ready for knotting, on finishing the splice, and (d and e) in the same manner for the present; the splice will then have the appearance represented in Fig. 122, c. Cut a piece of rope, and unlay a strand sufficiently long to fill in the vacant lay between (f and g), and to knot with the ends (f, g); lay the strand

in, and finish off as with an ordinary long-splice, from which it will only differ in appearance by its having four breaks in the rope instead of three. In putting in the long strand, care must be taken to follow the lay along correctly, or it will not tally with the ends (f, g), with which it knots.

      If it is required to give a sail more spread by inserting a cloth, the head and foot rope must be lengthened in this way. For all sizes of rope, take eight times the round for splicing, in addition to what is wanted to lengthen the rope. To lengthen two feet, cut the strands three feet apart; and the additional strand must be over nine feet long.

      To Shorten a Rope in the Centre. Proceed precisely as in the previous case but, instead of separating strand (b) from 1, bringing it down to (a), take it up on 1 as far as you require to reduce the rope. No additional strand is used, so knot (b, f), (d, g), and (e, c); finish off the ends, and in appearance it differs in no way from the common long-splice.

      To Splice a Rope around a Thimble. Whip the rope at twice and a half its circumference from the end. The length to go round the thimble should be once the round of the thimble, and once the round of the rope, from the whipping to where the first strand is to be struck. If the splice is not to be served, whip the ends of the strands, to prevent them from opening out into yarns, and stick them twice, whole strand. If to be served, after one half of each strand is put through, it is cut off, and the other half is opened out, wormed along the lay, and marled down. Parcel the thimble.

      A Sailmaker's Splice is used when ropes of different sizes are to be joined neatly, and they require tapering, that the change may be gradual; as in splicing the leech and head rope of a topsail.

      Unlay enough of the small rope to stick the ends once and a half, but of the larger one, unlay for a considerable distance, according to the relative disproportion of the ropes, and the degree of tapering required; crotch, as for a common splice. Take a strand of the large rope, cut away about one-fourth from the under part, and put it, left-handed, through the corresponding strands of the small rope; cut away a few more yarns, and pass it again, back-handed, round the same strand of the small rope; and so proceed, working with the same strand of the large rope round and round the same strand of the small one, cutting away gradually till it is reduced to nothing. Then, one at a time, put the other large strands through in a similar manner, cutting away more or less of the third strand, as may be necessary to give roundness to the splice. Finally, slue round and splice the small strands into the large rope, as in a common short splice, tapering the ends.

      A Mariner's Splice is a long splice in a cable-laid rope. Proceed as in a long splice, when, instead of sticking the strands, they in turn are long-spliced; get it on a stretch with luffs, and trim off the ends. This splice is not very often used, for it can be done only with old soft hawsers, which should rather be shroud-knotted, the ends marled down and served over.

      Splicing a Hawser, Work a long splice, as with a plain-laid rope, but, instead of knotting the strands, unlay them, marry them together, and tuck them in under the strand that you would reeve them through if you had knotted them in the usual manner; under this first strand of the hawser put all three parts of the strand; under the next, two only; then one, and, lastly, back this one.

      To Splice a Small Rope to a Chain, Fig. 123, Plate 18. Unlay the end and reeve two of the strands through the end link; unlay the third strand (3) some distance back, following it up as in a long splice with one of the other strands (2); half-knot and stick as in a splice; the remaining end. (1), one of the two rove through the link, is stuck where it is, near the link, as in an eye-splice. This is a very neat and strong splice, and is used for tailing rope to chain topsail sheets; for the standing part of a fall where neatness is required, &c.

      A Ropemaker's Eye is used for forming the collars of stays. A four-stranded stay is unlaid, two strands each way; then each half is doubled back, and laid up with its own part. At the fork, four strands are worked in as in splicing, tapering off by thinning the strands each time they are stuck. The eyes and fork are then wormed and served over. If, instead of laying back both strands to the crotch, but one is so treated, while the other is opened out and used for worming, then each lay will be three-stranded, and look much neater.

      If the rope is three-stranded, the eye may be formed in the same way. Unlay the rope, say seven times its own circumference, marl two strands together, tar, parcel and form the eye, putting in a thimble or not, as required; unlay the third strand, following it up by one of the strands that formed the eye, to a distance of about eighteen inches; cross the ends and stick, as in a long splice. The other strand that formed the eye is divided into three equal parts, a portion of each is put in the lays of the rope for worming, and the remainder is tapered, marled down and served over with spun-yarn. This, too, may be termed a ropemaker's eye. It is strong enough to break the rope.

      A Flemish Eye, Fig. 125, Plate 19. Take the end of a rope, and unlay one strand (7), Fig. 124, to a certain distance, and form the eye, Fig. 125, by placing the two strands (8) along the standing part of the rope, filling up the intervals (marked by the shade) with strand (7),

till it returns and lies under the eye with the strands (8). The ends are scraped down, tapered, marled, and served over with spun-yarn.

      An Artificial or Spindle Eye, Fig. 126, Plate 19, sometimes, though improperly, called a Flemish eye. Put a whipping on the rope at three and a half times its circumference from the end, which unlay. Take a piece of round wood twice the size of your rope, and lash it to a convenient place, having yarn stops on it to stop the eye after it is formed. With a four-stranded rope, unlay the heart and divide it in two; bring the rope under the spar with two strands, and half the heart on each side; pass the heart over and half knot it on top, heaving the rope close up to the spar with a bolt on each side. The width of the eye should be one-third the round of the rope; take from each strand two yarns for every inch of circumference of rope; if a 10-inch rope take twenty yarns, twist them up, and half-knot them on top of the spar, heave taut and pass them down the lay of the rope for wormings; put a spun-yarn seizing on close to the eye, and another about nine inches below, and put a yarn stop around the ends to keep them in the lay of the rope. Take two-thirds as many yarns from each strand as were used for worming, haul them taut, half-knot them on top, hauling them well taut, and so continue until the yarns are all expended. The yarns must be set well taut alike, or they will not bear an equal strain. Smooth the yarns down and put a stop round all, close underneath the toggle. Half-knot the stops laid lengthwise on the spar, heave them taut with a marling-spike on each side of the eye; form the other half-knot and heave it taut. Marl the eye with two or three yarn spun-yarn; the hitches to be about an inch apart, commencing at the centre of the eye and working both ways; cut the stops as you come to them. Pass a strand round all, close to the spar underneath, and heave taut with marling-spikes, to work the worming taut along the lay; then put on a good spun-yarn seizing. Now tar and parcel the eye and serve it with spun-yarn, fid out, and it is finished, Fig. 127.

      This makes a neat eye for the end of a stay. It is frequently used, too, for the lower end of man-ropes where the laniard is spliced in.

      When hemp cables were in general use and splicing necessary, they used a TAPERED SPLICE, Fig. 128, Plate 19, where the strands were thinned out gradually and the splice served over with spun-yarn a little beyond the entire length; looking, when finished, something like a mousing.

      Also, the Drawing Splice, Fig. 129, Plate 19, used that the splice might be drawn and the lengths of cable separated. After making a short splice, the ends,

which are left long, are tapered off and neatly pointed; these are wormed into the lay, after splicing, and good seizings clapped on at intervals.

      A Grommet, Fig. 131, Plate 19, is made by unlaying a strand of a rope, Fig. 130, placing one part over the other, and with the long end (f) following the lay till it forms the ring, Fig. 131, casting an over-hand knot on the two ends, and, if necessary, splitting and pushing them between the strands, as in the long splice. The test of a well-made grommet is, to throw it on the deck when it should lie perfectly flat. Worn or four-stranded rope makes the best. For grommet straps for yard or block, take three times the round of yard or block and three times the round of the thimble, allowing six times the round of the rope for splicing. The length to marry the strands is, once the round of the block and thimble.

      Working a Cringle in a Rope. Unlay a single strand from a rope of the size that the cringle is required to be; begin on the left, and put this strand under two strands of the rope you are working it on; divide it into thirds and haul two-thirds of it through, so that the long leg is from you; lay the two parts up together so as to form sufficient for the round of the cringle, but always with an odd number of turns, ending with the long leg towards you, Fig. 132, Plate 20; stick it from you under two strands; bring it round and work back to the left; put it under two strands towards you, leaving one strand intervening between the place you entered it, then back over one, and down under two, Fig. 133. Now tuck the short end in under the same two strands in the rope that the cringle is already worked through, then over one, and under two; cut the ends off, and serve the cringle over.

      If a cringle is to be worked into the leech of a sail, the strand is taken round the rope and through the eyelet-hole in the sail, Fig. 134, Plate 20, and the ends are finished off by taking a hitch round all, and then passed under two, over one, and under two, as before.

      Grommet Muzzle-Lashing for Housing Guns. A grommet made of rope double the size of the gun-tackle falls, with two cringles worked into it for the frapping lashing, which will be of stuff half the size of the tackle-falls.

      The grommet should be made large enough just to slip over the swell of the muzzle when the bight is over the housing hook-bolt, and the gun is in position for housing. It should be wormed throughout, and parcelled in the wake of the housing-bolt and frapping-lashing, and when there is no swell, in the wake of the muzzle ring.

      When the housing-bolt is an eye-bolt, the grommet is secured to it by means of a toggle which has a laniard.

      Breechings for all guns are to be made of the best hemp, of three-stranded rope, shroud laid.^*

      In fitting breechings, a thimble is to be spliced into one end, the strands stuck through twice and marled down. A thimble is to be turned into the other end, so that the length of the breeching may be conveniently altered. Thus fitted, when the gun is run in and levelled, breechings must be long enough to allow the muzzle of the gun to come a foot inside of the upper port sill, if the breadth of the vessel will allow it. With guns of violent recoil, this distance may be advantageously doubled, where there is room enough, as thereby the strain will be much lessened.

      Breechings are neither to be covered, nor blacked, nor rendered less pliable.

      Seizing a rope, is binding the two parts together with spun-yarn, house-line, marline, or small stuff.

      All seizing stuff should be well stretched before use.

      A Spanish Windlass, Fig. 135 (a), Plate 20, is used for heaving two parts of a shroud, or any rope requiring it, together at the nip, before passing the seizing, and for many similar purposes. A strand is laid on the top; the ends are crossed underneath, and brought up on opposite sides, the bights taken round a bar or heaver, laid on the top, a twist is taken in them, and a marling-spike stuck through the bights, and hove upon. See also Fig. 135b.

      A Round Seizing, Fig. 138, Plate 20. Splice an eye in the end of a seizing, Fig. 136, and taking the other end round both parts of the rope, reeve it through the eye, pass a couple of turns, haul them taut by hand; then, with a marling-spike-hitch, heave these two turns well taut, by the heaver or marling-spike; pass the rest, and bind them in the same manner, making six, eight, or ten turns, according to the size of the rope; then push the end through the last turn, Fig. 137. Over these, pass five, seven, or nine more (which are termed Riders), always laying one less above than below. These are not to be hove too taut, that those underneath may not be separated. The end is now pushed up through the seizing, and two cross turns, Fig. 138, are taken betwixt the two parts of the rope and round the seizing (leading the end through the last turn), and hove well taut. If the seizing be small stuff, a Wall Knot is cast on the end; but if spun-yarn, an over-hand knot. When this seizing is clapped on the two ends of a rope, it is called an End Seizing. If upon the bight, as in the

figure, an Eye Seizing, and if between the two others, a Middle Seizing.

      A Throat Seizing, Fig. 140, Plate 21, is put on when ropes cross, and is passed with riding turns, but not crossed. A bight is formed, Fig. 139, by laying the end (a) over the standing part (b). The seizing is then clapped on; the end put through the last turn of the riders, and knotted. The end part of the rope, Fig. 140, is turned up and fastened to the standing part, as in the figure, with a round seizing. This is used for turning in dead-eyes, hearts, blocks, or thimbles.

      The riding turns are one less in number than the under ones, as 7 and 6, 10 and 9, etc.

      A Round Seizing, second method. Splice an eye in the seizing, pass it under both parts of the rope, and reeve the end through the eye; slack up, lay hold of the upper turn and end part with your left hand, and under turn with your right, and work the seizing round left-handed until enough turns-six, eight, or ten-are wound round, Fig. 141, then reeve the end back between the upper and under turns, and bring it up through the eye; heave each turn taut separately, keeping the eye on the left-hand side, Fig. 142. When you have hauled the end taut through the eye, pass the riding turns round, in the same direction as at first-one in number less than the under turns, and haul hand-taut, Fig. 143. When all on, pass the end down between the last two parts of the upper side of the inner turns, between both parts of the rope, and pass two round turns, crossing all parts of the seizing, Fig. 144; then slue the rope over, and finish off with a reef-knot, Fig. 146, on the under side, or as in Fig. 145.

      Racking Seizing, Fig. 147, Plate 21. This seizing is generally made use of in seizing two parts of rope together temporarily, but very securely. When the seizing stuff is fitted with an eye, as in the figure, it is taken around both parts of the rope-the end rove through the eye, and hauled taut, after which it is passed between the two parts of the rope, around the part opposite the eye (of the seizing), back between the ropes, and so on, each full turn, when passed, resembling a figure 8.

      Each turn is drawn taut in succession, and the last one is secured by passing the end between the parts of rope inside the last turn, thus jamming it by the hitch formed.

      The two lower turns of a throat seizing should be passed as racking turns; and, thus passed, serve well to fill up the open space between the parts of rope, as they are brought together.

      A Flat Seizing is commenced the same as a round seizing, but, on the end being rove through the eye, it is finished off at once with a reef-knot without any riding turns.

      A Cuckold's Neck, or Half Crown, is

formed as Fig. 148, Plate 21, with a round seizing. Used when ropes are fitted for going over a spar, as in Fig. 149, at a.

      A Rose Seizing, or Rose Lashing, Figs. 150 and 151, Plate 22, is used when rigging is lashed to yards, etc., such as foot-ropes, &c. It is passed alternately over and under each part of the eye, and the end passed around the crossings instead of cutting it off.

      Stopping, is fastening two parts of a rope together, like a round seizing, but not crossed.

      Nippering, is making fast the two parts of a laniard or tackle-fall, while the purchase is fleeted. The turns are taken crossways, Fig. 152, between the parts to jam them; and frequently a round turn is taken over the laniard, before every cross: these are called racking turns. Riders are passed over these, and the end fastened with a round turn and half hitch, or with a clove hitch, to a part of the laniard or fall.

      Spun-Yarn is used for Worming, Serving, Seizing, &c., as a general rule, but Hambroline, Rounding, and small seizing stuff is frequently substituted.

      Worming a Rope is filling up the division between the strands (called the lay of the rope) by passing spun-yarn, &c., along them, Fig. 153. This is done in order to strengthen it, for various purposes, and to render its surface smooth for parcelling. After being passed by hand, worming is hove on by a soft strand knotted and taken round the rope; a bolt is then passed through the bights, and the strap twisted up and hove round the rope, which tautens the worming as it proceeds. With very large rope, the worming requires backing^* on each side with smaller stuff, in order to fill it up properly. If the rope is not to be served, a seizing, snaked, should be put round the worming at intervals, to keep it in its place, as it is liable to work slack.

      Worming is in length about once and a half the length of the rope to be wormed, for each piece.

      Parcelling a Rope, is wrapping strips of old canvas round it, well tarred, with edge overlapping, which prepares it for serving and secures it from being injured by rain-water lodging between the parts of the service when worn, Fig. 156. Parcel with the lay, if service is to be used, otherwise against it.

      Service is put on to protect the rope from chafe and the influence of weather. It is clapped on by a wooden mallet, Fig. 154, made for the purpose. The mallet is round at the top, but has a groove cut in the head of it to receive the rope, that the turns of the spun-yarn may be passed

with ease and dispatch. The rope is first bowsed hand-taut by a tackle, then wormed. The end of the spun-yarn for the service is laid upon the rope, and two or three turns passed round the rope and over it (the end), hauling them very taut. The mallet is laid with its groove upon the rope, Fig. 156; a turn of the spun-yarn is taken round the rope and the head of the mallet, close to the last turn which was laid by hand; another is passed in the same manner, and a third also on the fore part of the mallet, leading up round the handle (i), which the rigger holds in his hand. The service is always passed against the lay of the rope, so that as the latter stretches, the tension of the former is not much decreased. A boy holds the ball of spun-yarn (k), at some distance from the man who is serving, and passes it round, as he turns the mallet, by which he is not retarded in the operation. The end is put through the three or four last turns of the service, and hauled taut.

      A serving board, Fig. 155, is used for small jobs.

      Two men can worm, parcel and serve two fathoms of twelve-inch rope in an hour.

      Spike-serving is used when you have a small eye or similar piece of gear to serve. The turns are passed by hand, and each is hove taut separately by taking a marlingspike-hitch over a marling-spike, and with the point prizing it against the rope until the service is taut.

      Whipping a Rope, Fig. 157, Plate 22, is done to prevent the end from fagging out. Place the end of the whipping stuff in the lay of the rope, pointing up towards the end, and pass a few turns round the rope, binding the end of the whipping; then laying the other end on the turns already passed, pointing downwards, pass the remainder on the bight, hauling through on the end part and cutting off.

      The "Square" and "Sharp-up" marks on braces are put on in a similar manner; the last turns being passed slack, and the end stuck through.

      A Sailmaker's Whipping is put on with a needle and twine-a reef point has such a whipping. Pass a stitch through the point, take several turns, stick through again, and pass cross turns from one end of whipping to the other in the direction of the lay of the rope.

      Crowning the end of a Rope is a rough substitute for a whipping. With the three strands form a crown, then stick the end once or twice as in splicing.

      To Crown a Hawser. Put a stout whipping on the hawser, a sufficient distance from the end to allow for crowning. Unlay the strands to the whipping, and lay the three inside, or heart strands up together. Then form

the crown with the three outside ones, taking them above, and covering the remaining three, which, with the heart strands, should be whipped, and cut off even. Lastly, worm the ends of the crowning strands back into the lay of the hawser, and clap stout smooth seizings close up to the crown, and at the extremity of the worming. Sometimes an artificial eye is formed with the inner strands.

      To Point a Rope, Figs. 160 and C, Plate 22. Unlay the end of a rope as for splicing, and stop it. Take out as many yarns as are necessary, and make nettles: (this is done by taking separate parts of the yarns when split, and twisting them.) Comb the rest down with a knife, Fig. 158. Make two nettles out of every yarn which is left; lay half the nettles down upon the scraped part, and the other, back upon the rope, Fig. 159. Take a length of twine, which call the Filling, and pass three turns very taut, jamming them with a hitch at (a). Proceed, laying the nettles backwards and forwards as before, and passing the filling. The ends may be whipped and snaked with twine, or the nettles hitched over the filling, and hauled taut. The upper seizing must also be snaked, Fig. 160. The pointing, will appear like Fig. C: a small becket is often worked at the end, when the rope is large (g). If the tapered part be too weak for pointing, a piece of stick may be put in, proceeding as before.

      Snaking is for the better securing of a seizing, which is passed round the single part of a rope, and therefore cannot be crossed. It is done by taken the end part under and over the lower and upper turns of the seizing, Fig. 161, Plate 22.

      Pointing Large Hawser. Clap on a whipping of three-yarn nettle-stuff, snaked. Open out the strands, lay the heart up three-stranded, and splice a becket into it, which has previously been eye-spliced into its own part. Lay the outside yarns up into five-yarn sennet; use, for filling, a two-yarn fox; and continue as already shown Fig. 162, Plate 23.

      Cross Pointing. Commence as for straight pointing, and, having laid the nettles, one up and one down alternately, bring an upper nettle down to the right of its corresponding lower one, Fig. 163 a, lay the lower one up, and work in this way once round to the right; commence again, and bring what are now the upper ones down to the left of the lower nettles, lay the lower ones up, and so work round backwards; then, bring them down again to the right, and so go on. Finish off with two turns of straight pointing as in Fig. 163 b, Plate 23.

      Hitching is a very convenient method for covering boats' awning-stanchions. The nettles to be used are middled, laid along the article to be covered, and secured in their places with a turn of filling. If working from one

end, as in the cut, Fig. 164, all the nettles are taken up; if working from the centre towards the ends, the nettles on each side of the filling supply their own end. The turn of filling being passed and hitched as in pointing, commence hitching the nettles round the filling, hauling each taut separately, working to the left, keeping the filling taut, and going round and round. If what you are covering, contracts in circumference, you must leave out a nettle occasionally, and cut it off; and should it increase, lay fresh ones in. It is finished off by keeping the bights of the last round slack until you have passed a couple of turns of the filling and hitched it as in finishing off pointing, when in the same manner haul the bights close down, and cut the ends off.

      Grafting, as understood now, is when a strap, ringbolt, or other article, is to be covered over entirely. It is done as in pointing, using instead of the rope-yarn nettles, log-line, or fishing-line, according to the size required.

      Pudding Fenders, or Dolphins, are used in the navy for launches, being placed outside the boat just under the gunwale, and permanently secured there.

      A piece of rope of the required length is cut, and an eye spliced in each end, by means of which it is set up to small eyebolts under the gunwale; the rope is then marked where the puddings are to be worked. Worm the rope and form the puddings with any old stuff, such as old strands laid lengthwise along the rope, raising the pile in the centre and scraping off the ends to a taper. Or make a tapering pudding by winding spun-yarn around the rope. In forming the pudding, the sides intended to be next to the boat are flat, and the outer sides a half round.

      When formed to the required shape, parcel the pudding and graft it over, as in Fig. 165a, or cover with leather, as in Fig. 165b.

      The whole fender is commonly known as a dolphin.

      Foxes for gaskets, &c., are made by taking a number of rope-yarns, from three upwards, according to the size intended, and twisting them on the knee, rubbing them well backwards and forwards with a piece of canvas. Spanish foxes are made by twisting single rope-yarns backhanded in the same manner.

      Gaskets, Fig. 167, Plate 23, are made by taking three or four foxes, according to the size, middling them

over a pin, &c., and plaiting the three or four parts together for the length of the eye, Fig. 166. The plaiting is formed by bringing the outside fox on each side alternately over to the middle. The outside one is laid with the right hand, and the remainder held and steadied with the left. When this is done, take the other parts (b), (having shifted the eye part so that it lies over the bolt, Fig. 167), and work the whole together in the same manner; add another fox at (a), and work it for a convenient length, then diminish it towards the end, taking out a fox at proper intervals. When finished, one end must be laid up, the others plaited, and then the one end hauled through. This is the same work used in making ordinary sennit.

      Sea gaskets or furling lines are made in this way, though not tapered.

      Turk's Head. Take two round turns round the rope, Fig. 168, Plate 24, pass the upper bight down through the lower, and reeve the upper end down through it, Fig. 168 (a); then pass the bight up again and reeve the end over the lower bight, and up between it and the upper one, Fig. 168 (b); dip the upper down through the lower bight again, reeve the end down over what is now the upper bight, and between it and the lower, Fig. 168 (c); and so proceed,-working round to your right until you meet the other end, when you pass through the same bight, and follow the other end round and round until you have completed a plait of two, three, or more lays, as you wish. Fig. 168 (d), shows a Turk's head of two lays.

      Turk's head worked into a Rope. This is done when the knot has to resist a strain, as the rung or round of a Jacob's ladder. You middle the marline or nettle-stuff that you are working with, and splice a second piece into the centre so as to form a third leg; then pass an end through the rope, and haul it through to the junction of the third leg, which reeve through the third strand of the rope, bringing an end out between each strand, Fig. 169 (a), Plate 24. Then crown the ends round the rope, left-handed; slue round, and crown them back, right-handed, and the knot will appear as in the Fig. 169. Follow each part round with its own end, cut the ends off, and it will appear like a Turk's head. With four-stranded rope use four ends.

      A Selvagee is made by warping. rope-yarn, spun-yarn, or small stuff, according to the size required, and marling down as in Fig. 170, Plate 24.

      A small selvagee may be made by warping rope-yarn

around two marling-spikes, stuck in the holes of a grating at the proper distance apart.

      Large ones are sometimes made of small stuff, for getting in lower masts, and are called garlands.

      As selvagee straps are soft and pliable, they are the best for clapping on rigging, spars, &c. as in Figs. 171 and 172.

      For the same reason, stoppers &c., braces, &c., are made in a similar manner, as in Fig. 173.

      Selvagees may be used for various purposes. A very neat and expeditious way of bending studding-sail halliards is to use a strap, as in Figs. 174 and 175.

      Very neat straps for blocks, may be made of selvagees.

      Reefing Beckets, Fig. 177, Plate 25, are made like sennit, after a variety of designs.

      These points may be made of manilla-yarns, or four-yarn spun-yarn, with four or five parts in the eye, and worked down with seven or nine parts; the length of the spun-yarn on the two parts to make a point, is once and a half the length of the point to be made. The eye is made around a toggle which remains in. If fitted to go around the jack-stay, plait down six inches from the toggle, then separate the foxes and plait an eye eight inches long, then plait down nine inches solid, whip the end with twine and it is finished.

      Sometimes the points or beckets are fitted to go round the yard, with a short eye to go over the toggle, and the toggle part is seized to the jack-stay. To make these, plait down from the toggle four inches longer than the round of the yard, where it would be placed, separate the foxes and plait an eye three or four inches, according to size of sail, then plait down solid four inches, another eye eight inches long, and solid again for nine inches, whipping the end with twine. When rope points are used, they are made as follows, supposing them to go round the yard: Cut the rope, which should be four-stranded, about three feet and a half longer than the round of the yard. Splice one end round the toggle, put a whipping on the rope about four inches longer than the round of the yard from the toggle; then divide the rope in two up to the whipping, and form an eye four inches long, with two strands on each side, then lay up four inches solid, and form another eye eight inches long; then lay up nine inches solid, and whip the end with twine. Now finish the eyes by taking a strand of the same sized rope four times the length of the eyes, pass it through the rope at the lower part of the eye, and lay one end up each side of the eye to form a three-stranded rope, splice them into the standing part and it is finished, as in Fig. 176, Plate 25.

      Common Sennit is made with an odd number of nettles. If, however, an eye is to be formed, you commence with an even number-one being a short one; and after the eye is formed, the short end is worked in, or, if too long, left out and cut off-leaving an odd number to go on with. We will suppose that a reef-point is to be made of seven parts of spun-yarn:-Cut off four lengths (one being but little more than half the length of the others), middle them, toggle the bights through a becket triced up before you, halve the nettles, lay the right-hand nettle over the next one to it, bringing it over to the left, making three now on your left, and one on your right; Fig. 178, Plate 25, bring the outside nettle on the left over two, which will equalize them again; then the right over one, left over two, and so on alternately till you have worked length enough for the eye; next bring all eight parts together, halve them, and go on as at first-right over three, and left over four. When two or three lays are worked in this way, leave out the short end, and continue with seven parts-right over three, and left over three in succession. Finish off by forming a bight of the left-hand nettle when you bring it over, laying the end up; and as you work the remaining nettles in, point them down through this bight; and, when all are in, secure them in their places by hauling the bight taut through upon them, and cutting the ends off, Figs. 179 and 180.

      French Sennit, like common Sennit, is made with an odd number of nettles. If about to make a harbor gasket for a royal yard in this manner, of nine parts of nettle-stuff, cut off five lengths (one being a short one), middle them, put a seizing round the bights to form the eye, which marl down, and serve over; then bring all nine parts together(having left out the short one after the seizing was passed), and divide them, with five to the right, and four to the left; weave the outside one on the right, over and under the nettles on its own side, bringing it out to the left, then do the same with the outside nettle on the left, and lay it out to the right, when there will be again five on the right, and four on the left, and so continue.

      Harbor gaskets are made in this way, and also the backers which nail on the topsail and lower yards for head-earings to haul out to, as in Fig. 181, Plate 25.

      Round Sennit is used for man-ropes, yoke-lines, &c., Figs. 182 and 183. Stretch a heart of small rope taut along between two belaying pins, or other convenient fixture; take 8 (12, 16, or more) nettles, put a whipping round the heart and ends, to hold them, divide them into fours of 2 (3, 4, or more) parts each; then lay No. 1 pair

over the heart, to your left; then No. 2 to your right, crossing the first pair; next No. 3 pair under all to the right, and over No. 2; No. 4 round under all to the left, and over No 3; then No. 1 round to the right, under No. 2, and over 4, 2 round to the left, under 3, and over 1; and so on, always bringing the upper pair on the opposite side, to cross over the pair last passed. Finish the end off by pointing the heart with the nettles made into smaller ones; and finish the top by walling and crowning the heart, covering it with duck to round it, then double-walling and crowning the nettles over the heart knot, previously whipped underneath, with a Turk's head to cover the whipping. Or, after forming the knot of the heart, and covering it, and putting the whipping round the nettles underneath, you may cut 1 them off, and cover the knot with Turk's heading of mackerel line, begun very slack, and spread over the knot, by passing with a sail-needle, as many lays in the plat as will be required to cover the knot.

      Square Sennit is used for the same purposes as round sennit, and also by engineers, as packing for pistons. It is made somewhat in the same manner as round sennit, but without a heart. Nettles are used in the same ratio, increasing by fours, but are worked singly instead of in pairs. Having put a whipping round the (eight) ends, divide the nettles, and lay half on each side; bring the uppermost left-hand nettle round underneath all, and up inside two, and over two of the right-hand ones-crossing over the latter ones to the left, and making four on each side again; then take the uppermost of the right-hand nettles, pass it underneath, and under two, and over two of the left-hand ones-still keeping four on a side, because the nettle taken up always comes round to its own side again. To proceed, take the upper nettle on each side alternately, and finish off as you finish round sennit. One man can make a fathom and a half of 9-yarn sennit in an hour. Fig. 184, Plate 25.

      Sword Mat. At a distance apart, equal to the length of the mat, sling a couple of bars in a horizontal position. Hitch one end of the warp to the bar at the end on which you intend to terminate the mat; take up the comb, which is made of a wood perforated with holes and slits alternately, Fig. 185, reeve the other end through the first hole, over and under the bar at which you intend to begin, back through the first slit, under and over the other bar; and so wind off as many parts as are required for the breadth of the mat, the last turn being rove through a slit, and secured to the bar at which you finish off, Fig. 186. This done, lift the loom up, middle the filling, and lay it

between the upper and under parts; then lower the loom, and the parts that were lowermost will rise in the slits, become the uppermost, and thus put a cross in the warp. Next put the sword, made of hard wood in the shape of a knife, in between the upper and under parts, and drive the crossing close up towards the bar, and harden it well up, Fig. 187; then pass a turn of filling to secure the crossing, reeving the ends through contrary ways, haul it taut, take out the sword, lift the loom up, and go on again. When you come to the last turn of filling, half-knot it with two turns.

      If you have to make a mat for which your loom is not large enough, you rig a fiddle, by slinging a handspike athwartships to the main-deck beams overhead; pick up every other part of the warp, and with a piece of nettle-stuff passed over the handspike with two round turns, and rove round the alternate parts of the mat, trice them up. The upper parts will thus cross the under parts before and abaft the fiddle, and you will require two swords. Reeve the filling, and secure the first crossing already formed, by the parts being triced up, in the ordinary manner, hardening it up with the first sword; now, put the second sword in between the crossing and the bar abaft the fiddle, give the mat a shake, to disengage the parts, and with the sword lift the upper ones up. The crossing will thus be extended before the fiddle; so withdraw the first sword, put it in abaft this crossing, drive it up and secure it with a turn of filling; again lift up the fiddle, keeping the second sword fast (which is never removed); a crossing is again formed at each end; and you again repeat the operation. Fig. 187, Plate 26.

      With a heavy boom-mat five or six feet wide, you require a second fiddle underneath, to rouse the parts through. A couple of hands jump down on the handspike; and the upper one, which is triced up by a couple of jiggers, is lowered at the same time.

      To finish off or selvage the mat:-After passing the last turn of filling, and securing it with a half-hitch with two turns, you lay the laniard across on the top of the filling, and commence unreeving again the front row of nettles, one at a time, beginning on the right. As you withdraw them you bring the corresponding nettle, at the back, over the laniard and filling, and reeve it back through the hole left vacant by the one hauled out. See Fig. 188, Plate 26. Go right across and haul the bights taut down to the laniard. On slueing the mat round, you will find that this will leave the second row of filling bare; so go on withdrawing the same ends again, along the second row, and pointing the same reeving ends, as at first, through the holes the others came out of, covering the filling, and complete four or five rows of this in the same manner. Then, to cover the last row of filling, and to secure the ends of the nettles, you lay them up and down alternately, the long

ends that you have withdrawn going up, and the short ones that you have been reeving, laying down; haul them taut, beat them in, and then tuck them under the bights of the next lay, the lower ones left-handed through the bights to the right, and the upper left-handed to the left. Beat the mat down and cut the ends off. Fig. 189.

      To finish off by shouldering, as for the upper part of a lower rigging mat (when, after reaching the top of the dead-eye, it is contracted in order to cover the shroud for a few inches), you leave as many nettles out at each edge of the mat as will reduce it sufficiently, then lay the laniard (to secure the mat above the dead eye), along the top of the last turn of filling, and go on working on the centre nettles that you have retained, as far up as you intend to go. Knot the filling, tease the ends of the nettles out a bit, place them round the shroud and serve them over. The ends that you left out, on each side, you finish off by selvaging, as already explained. As the rigging stretches, turn the bottom of the mat up, with the end inside. Permanent coverings for laniards are not approved of.

      Splicing a Sword Mat. Unlay six or eight inches of each mat, open the ends out, marry them together, lay one up and one down flat along the mat, withdraw the nettles on one side of one (No. 1) mat, and point the nettles of the other mat (No. 2) through the holes they came out of; all ends will then disappear from that side, and there will be four rows of ends on the other. Slue over, pick out the proper nettles of the side, which have been married together, withdraw the ends belonging to No. 2 mat, and introduce the corresponding ends of No. 1 through the holes. The same operation has now been performed on each mat, and on each side there are now two rows of ends; marry those together on each side, laying one up and one down, and go on splicing by withdrawing and reeving, for two or three rows more in each mat. Leave off with the ends all out on the same side, and finish off with selvaging.

      Cobbler's Stitch is used for joining the sides of mats together, Fig. 190, Plate 26. Take a filling of roping twine, middle it, and reeve each end through two bights in each mat (if a heavy mat, through three bights at each edge), then reeve the lowermost end back through the same bights as the upper end, which will bring the ends out at opposite sides; draw the mats together, and reeve both ends through two turns in each mat again, passing each other through the same hole opposite ways; and so work on, like a cobbler stitching a sole. Finish off each end, by taking a hitch through a bight in the mat of the next lay above, and cut the ends off.

      Paunch Mat. For heavy-rigging mats, strands of 3-in. or 3 1/2-in. rounding would be used for foxes, with a laniard of 2 1/2-in. Stretch the laniard along at a convenient

working height, middle the foxes and lay them across it, and, commencing on the left, lay up one turn in the first pair, right-handed. Repeat this with the second pair, and Jay up the nettle that comes round to the front and left, one turn with the underneath nettle of the first pair, which was brought out to the right; then lay this latter up, one turn with the other nettle of its own pair, and take a hitch with it-which do with the last two nettles on the left, each time that you work down to them, to keep the mat from unlaying again. Now commence with the third pair-take the underneath nettle round the upper one, which lay up with the underneath and right-hand nettle of the second pair, which lay up with the other one of the second pair, which lay up with the under one of the first pair, which lay up with the left-hand nettle of all, which lay up with two or three turns to prevent unlaying, round which take a hitch. So proceed until all the nettles are brought in-a second hand holding them back as you lay up, and when you have come to the last, and the full breadth of the mat is formed, go on in the same way, working down for length. When you have obtained this on the left edge of the mat, it will appear as in Fig. 191, Plate 26; and you then begin to work down square, taking a hitch with each pair as you have finished with them, to prevent them unlaying.

      To selvage it, take it down, and lay it on a grating; commence with the first left-hand fox, which bring round under the next one, arid lay up along the mat, laying the one that it comes round (which is the second fox) downward, and in this manner go right across; then stretch the laniard along the nettles where they cross, and hitch the ends to the grating. With the first fox laid upward take a right-hand hitch round the laniard, as in Fig. 192, and the first one down; then take the down one (a), dip it back under the laniard, and haul it taut down, another hand at the same time hauling back on the upper one, and so knot the foxes right across. When done, haul all the lower ends taut up, and, beginning on the left cross the upper nettle (which is on the left of the lower) over it, and reeve it through the bight in the mat in the immediate lay to the right, bring the end out to the left (rove left-handed). Beat the hitches down, and cut the ends off, but not close; for if left of the proper length, they will form two rows of thrums. Tuck a thrum in every third bight up, and in every other lay across, which is quite thick enough; and_ beat down the bights in the mat that they are rove through, each time separately.

      To Repair a Digging Mat which has had a hole chafed through it. Stick sufficient foxes through the bights of the mat at the top of the hole, to cover it, lying well over the edges, and back clear of the hole, and middle them. Bring the left-hand fox round the next one to it, lay

its end up, and the one it comes round downwards, like the commencement of selvaging; go right across and secure it by sticking the left-hand nettle, right-handed, through a bight in the mat in the edge of the hole, and the right-hand nettle, left-handed, through a similar bight, the ends of each pointing outwards; then work the next and succeeding rows as a paunch mat is worked, but working square across, laying one fox up with its next only, and securing each row as it is completed, by tucking the right and left-hand nettles in as you did with the first row. When you have thus covered the hole, stick all the ends through the bights below them left-handed once or twice, and cut them off; then slue the mat over, and either stick the broken ends into the new piece, or bring the edges together with a lacing.

      Net-Making. Fill the needle, stretch the head-rope along, and begin on the left by securing the end of the twine to it. Regulate the size of the mesh by taking it over your finger, and then clove-hitching it to the head. When you have worked as far to the right as the head is intended to extend, get round on the other side of the net, and work back again; but this row of meshes, and all the subsequent ones, are formed by hitching them to the upper row with a sheet bend. When the second row is finished, shift round to the other side again, and work the third row. The last row is hitched to the foot-rope, which is weighted with leads; the head-rope is floated with corks; and side-ropes are afterwards seized on. Figs. 193 and 194, Plate 27.

      To repair a seine, cut it away until you get a straight row of meshes, and replace them as at first made.

      A Shot or Treasure-Net is made like a cabbage-net; the head-rope is circular, the meshes are formed in the usual way, and the circumference of the net is reduced as you work down, by bringing two meshes into one, at regular intervals; at first, one mesh in a row; in the next row, two meshes; then taking up every fourth mesh, next every third in a row, and so on. Finish off by working a small grommet through the meshes at the bottom, to keep them together; and reeve two straps through the head for beckets, so that by hauling them apart, the mouth of the net is drawn up. Fig. 195, Plate 27.

      Boats' Fenders. A paunch mat fender is made of a piece of mat rolled up taut, with the ends of the foxes placed in the centre; the end is sewed to the part of the mat where it terminates, and the edges are laced together. The laniard of the mat forms the laniard of the fender. Fig. 196, Plate 27.

      The usual hanging-fender for boom-boats is made of as many parts of spun-yarn as will give it the requisite dimensions. These are middled and doubled over the laniard, and a small grommet is driven over the bights to make them snug, as in making a swab. It is then grafted over, either

with sennit or foxes, and finished off as grafting is usually finished; or by crowning the end over with the foxes. Figs. 197 and 198, Plate 27.

      You can crown in this way with any number of ends that are a multiple of four, by dividing them into four parts, and laying a part down on each side; then bringing 1 over on side 6, keeping the bight up, laying 6 over between 1 and 2, bringing 2 over between 6 and 5, and laying 5 over outside 2; then laying 7 over 1, under 6, over 2, and under 5; 4 over 5, under 2, over 1, under 6; then reeving 8 across, and lastly 3;-when it will be found that all the ends are secured. Haul the bights taut down, and either put a whipping round underneath, or tuck the ends under the grafting and cut them off. Fig. 199, Plate 27.

      A grommet fender is merely a rope grommet grafted over.

      A canvas fender is stuffed with oakum, roped at the edges, and has a small grommet sewed on the centre, to keep the chafe off.

      Leather fenders are used for gigs and cutters.

      For another kind of fender for boom-boats, see DOLPHIN.

      Hammock Clews. Take twelve lengths of nettle-stuff, middle them, serve round all at the centre, and pass a seizing to form the eye; then lay one up and one down, as for a sword mat, bring the outside nettle on each side across for filling, and leave it out; form the other rows in the same manner, and when reduced to two, knot the last pair. Fig. 200, Plate 27.

      Spanish Clews are without plaiting, and are made by serving the nettles round below the seizing, leaving one out on each side, at regular intervals.

      Sennit for Hats. Split the grass up, take a couple of lengths, cross one over the other, Fig. 201, double the underneath one over the upper, then the right-hand one over and under the other two, and what is now the right-hand one over two and under one, then the left-hand one over one and under two, and again the left over two and under one; then work two in on the right, and so on. Join the grass when you come to an end, by laying the end of another piece on the top, and then go on working it in; and always join on the upper side, because the under side is the proper right side of the sennit. Afterwards clip all the ends off, and rub the sennit down smooth with a bottle, or anything hard. Fig. 202.

      The button is formed of a broader piece of grass (a). It is first doubled short over itself, then 1 under 2,-leaving a space, then 2 over 1, and down through the centre of the triangle; next 1 over 2, and down through the centre, coming out on the opposite side, and so on until an octagonal figure is formed (b).

      The hat is begun by stitching the sennit to the button, Fig. 203, commencing with the end finished off with, and

working round left-handed. The sennit is kept as slack as possible, and stitched through every other corner for the first few rounds; then afterwards through three thicknesses of sennit, and through every corner, the stitch being kept out of sight, by the needle being pointed underneath the strands of the sennit.

      Coir Brushes. Shape a piece of hard wood for the back (stave of a salt-meat cask, for example), burn out the holes in rows with a marling-spike; and out of another piece of wood cut a former. Make the coir up into fillings proportionate to the size of the holes, pass the bight of the marline down through the first hole, slip it over the filling, take a turn or two round the former, and heave the bight of the filling through the hole, up to the level of the top of the back, Fig. 205; then slue over, put the filling between the notch of the former, and cut it off square, Fig. 204; dip the bight of the marline down through the next hole, and in the same manner proceed with each, until all are filled in.

      To Mouse a Hook. This is done when hoisting a heavy weight to prevent the hook from straightening out, and on sails, &c., to prevent unhooking. Fig. 206, Plate 28.

      Hogshead Slings. A piece of rope about five fathoms long, and from five to six inches in circumference, with a large thimble spliced in one end and the other end well whipped. They are used to sling large casks, being more secure than can-hooks. They are put on in this manner: pass the bight over one end of the cask, reeve the end through the thimble, and haul it well taut; then take the end round the other end of the cask, and take two half-hitches round the standing part, and it is done. Fig. 207, Plate 28.

      Can-Hooks are broad, flat, iron hooks, in the eyes of which thimbles are inserted. Into these thimbles are spliced the ends of a piece of rope long enough to span a cask from chime to chime. The rope is then got on a stretch, wormed, parcelled, and served. A thimble is sometimes seized in the bight.

      Some can-hooks are fitted with chain, with a large iron ring in the middle. Fig. 208, Plate 28.

      Gun Slings are made of chain of three-quarter-inch iron, and tested to secure proper strength; the rings are of one and a quarter inch iron. The length of the slings should exceed by one foot that of the longest gun on board. The two parts should be parcelled and marled together for a space of two feet before and one foot behind the trunnions of the longest gun, and a piece of three-inch rope spliced around both parts in the wake of the parcelling, long enough to take four or five turns round the chase of the largest gun.

      A Tank-Toggle, Fig. 209, Plate 28, is used when hoisting tanks. The toggle is put in the man-hole, and the yard tackle hooked to the ring. By the superior weight of one end, it is readily withdrawn. Small ones are convenient to use with empty casks.

      To Sling a Cask with a Rope's-end-make a bowline knot in the yard-whip, and stick the end back so as to form a short bight, to which bend the stay-whip. Turn the bight of the bow-line over its own part, and slip each bight thus formed over one end of the cask. Fig. 210, Plate 28.

      To Sling a Cask with the Head Knocked in-slip the bight of the whip under the cask, take a hitch with each part over the head, and knot them together above. Fig. 211, Plate 28.

      Another way, though not quite so safe, is to make a figure-of-eight knot, and slip the bight under the barrel, as in Fig. 212.

      Bale or Barrel Slings are generally made of three-inch rope, and of sufficient length to go round the bale or barrel. They are similar to a long strap, spliced together with a short splice; are passed round the barrel and one bight rove through the other. Fig. 213, Plate 29.

      They are sometimes made long enough to sling two or three barrels at a time.

      A Parbuckle, Fig. 214, Plate 29, is a purchase contrived with a single rope for raising a heavy cask or other similar weight. The same kind of purchase, though on a larger scale, is used for getting on board the sheer legs when masting a ship with one's own resources.

      Jacob's Ladders are made of rope, as in Fig. 215, Plate 29, for convenience of passing into the boats, into the rigging, &c. They lead from the spar deck to the lower rigging, to enable the topmen to get in the rigging without getting on the hammocks; on the lower booms and main brace bumpkin to facilitate getting in and out of boats; and in large ships, to the after-end of the spare topsail yard in the chains; and also from the top-gallant mastheads, the lower end setting up to the afterpart of the cross-trees.

      Take twice the length, of four-stranded rope, the ladder is to be, and seize a thimble in the bight, having first wormed the rope; then at equal intervals, say sixteen inches, places the "rounds" or rungs between the strands, working Turk's heads on each side; splice a thimble in each end, and splice a laniard in the thimble. Those for the lower

boom, stern, and rigging generally, have sister hooks, and hook into eye-bolts placed for the purpose.

      Formerly a small line was rove through holes made in the centre of the rounds and ran the entire length of the ladder, and was called a concluding line.

      Snaking on Backstays, &c. Seizing a small rope alternately from one stay to another, to keep either-from falling if shot away. This is only done when preparing for action. Fig. 216, Plate 29.

      Netting, Fig. 217, Plate 29, are made by seizing together the bights of small ropes-such as ratline stuff-leaving uniform spaces or meshes between. The rope is first marked off at equal intervals with chalk, and neat seizings of twine clapped on. They are used in different parts of the ship for various purposes.

      Jib Nettings seize to the jib guys on each side, passing under the boom, and are for the purpose of catching and holding the jib when hauled down, and to save men from falling overboard when stowing the jib in bad weather.

      Staysail Netting, for stowing the foretopmast staysail in.

      Boarding Nettings trice up from the rail to the ridge-rope to prevent the enemy from boarding. These, when made of ratline stuff well soaked in tar, sanded, and allowed. to harden, defy the sharpest knife.

      Quarter-deck nettings are stretched over the deck like an awning to prevent spars, &c., from falling on the heads of the officers in time of action.

      Boarding and splinter nettings as well as exterior nettings for defence against torpedoes are only furnished in time of war.

      Blocks are mechanical contrivances, possessing the properties and powers of pulleys. They are generally made by machinery, of ash, and are, what are called, made or mortised.

      The made block, Fig. 220, Plate 30, consists of four principal parts, as follows:-The shell or outside, consisting of two or more pieces pinned together; the sheave or wheel. (b), over which the rope passes; the pin or axle (a), on which the sheave turns, and the strap, either rope or iron, which encircles the whole, and by which it is confined to its particular place.

      The sheave may be of metal or of lignum-vitae; if the latter, it is bouched (c), in all blocks except those used for the gun tackles. In the patent blocks the bouching contains friction rollers. Fig. 221.

      In the common block the bouching is counter-sunk, and made of a composition of 100 parts of copper and 16 of tin. The sheaves of blocks used for gun tackles are not allowed to be bouched, and the pins are made of hardened copper. The pin of the common block is made of iron.

      Mortised blocks, Fig. 222, Plate 30, are made from a single piece of wood, mortised out to receive the sheave.

      Blocks are single, double, treble or threefold, and fourfold, according to the number of sheaves contained within the shell; are either single or double scored, and are measured by their length-that is, the length of the shell.

      The scores are the notches cut at the ends of the shell to admit the strap.

      The sizes of blocks used in the navy range from 4 inches to 22 inches inclusive, as follows:-4-inch, 5-inch, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, and 22, single and double of each size, and treble blocks for the largest purchases.

      Not included in the above are viol blocks, large blocks used for warping, &c.

      Blocks take their name from the purposes to which they are applied, or from some peculiarity of form, the following being the principal ones in common use:-

      Bee-Blocks, or simply BEES, are thick pieces of oak bolted to the sides of the bowsprit, having heavy metal sheaves in them for the fore-topmast and fore-topmast spring stays to reeve through.

      Cat-Block, a large, double or three-fold block, iron-strapped and composition sheaves. It has a large hook connected with the strap by a link, to admit play. It is used to raise the anchor to the cathead. Fig. 225.

      Cheek-Blocks are made of a half-shell, and bolt against a mast or spar, which acts as the other cheek or half of shell. The chief bolt serves as a pin for the sheave to turn on. Used on gaffs for brails, &c.

      Clew-garnet Blocks are single, iron-bound, and hook or shackle to the iron bands on the quarters of the fore and main yard. They hang under the yard and receive the clew-garnets, by which the courses are hauled up. The name also applies to the blocks which hook in the clews of the sail.

      Clew-line Blocks are those which are attached to the clews of the topsails for the clew-lines. Formerly, the name applied only to the block on the yard, now called QUARTER-BLOCK.

      Clump-Block. Strongly made blocks with a thick metal sheave, having a large swallow or opening in proportion to the length. Used for the topsail and topgallant lifts in the top; also on collar of main stay for fore-topsail brace, &c.

      The same name is applied to any short thick block, such as fore and main tack blocks, &c.

      Dasher-Block is the small block sometimes strapped to the extremity of the spanker-gaff, for reeving the ensign halliards.

      Euphroe. A long piece of wood having a number of holes in it, through which the crow foot for the awnings is rove. It has a score around it for a strap, and is strapped with a thimble for bending the crow-foot halliards.

      Fish-Block. For fishing the anchor; a large double or treble block, iron strapped, fitted with several links of chain and a hook to hook on the arm of the anchor.

      Fiddle-Blocks, Fig. 223, Plate 30, are made with a long shell so as to have one sheave over the other, the lower being smaller. Used for top-burtons and as hanging blocks. When used for fore or main buntlines the two parts are connected by a swivel.

      Fly-Block is the upper block of the topsail halliards. It is double, has sister hooks and thimble for hooking to the topsail tye. Friction rollers.

      Gin-Blocks, Fig. 224, Plate 30, are large composition sheaves which turn in a metal framework. Used principally for topsail tyes, and hook to iron bands, made to fit snugly over the topmast tressle-trees. The name is also applied to the small metal blocks used aloft for various purposes, such as for topgallant and royal braces, topgallant buntlines, etc.

      Girt-line Blocks are single, through which girt-lines, or single whips reeve, as the mast-head girtlines, in rigging ship, etc. Sometimes called gantlines.

      Hanging-Blocks. Any block depending at a mast-head, as a lead for running rigging; such as the fiddle-blocks at fore-topmast head for head halliards and topsail buntlines, etc.

      Jack-Blocks are large single blocks, used for sending up and down topgallant and royal yards.

      Jeer-Blocks are large double or treble blocks for reeving the purchases for sending up and down the lower yards.

      Jewel-Blocks are single blocks at the extremities of the topsail, topgallant, and sometimes, though rarely, royal yards, through which the studding-sail halliards reeve. The head of the studding-sail, when set, is hoisted to them.

      Main-sheet Block is a double or treble block, strapped to the main-boom of a schooner or sloop, for the main-sheet, or a single block for main-sheet of square riggers.

      Quarter-Blocks, on the topsail or topgallant yards, are double, and are iron-strapped to the quarters of the yards, to give lead to the sheet of the sail above and clewline of the sail below. On the lower yard they are single, for the topsail sheet alone, and on the royal yard they are single, for the royal clewline alone. Those for the topgallant and royal yards go with sister hooks, that they may be readily detached.

      Sister-Blocks, Fig. 226, Plate 30, are formed of one solid piece and two sheaves, one above the other; between the sheaves is a score for a middle seizing, and on the sides a score for the shrouds to fit in. They are seized between the two forward shrouds of topmast rigging, and give lead to the topsail lift and topsail reef tackle, Fig. 270, Plate 38. Frequently, of late, the reef tackle is given a different lead, in which case but one sheave is seized in.

      Secret-Blocks, Fig. 227, Plate 30, are so made that the sheave is entirely screened, the rope leading through an orifice in the shell just large enough to admit its free passage, the object being to prevent its fouling by small gear catching in the swallow and choking it. Used for clewlines, which are frequently fouled by reef-points, and for clew-jiggers. The shell of the block, Fig. 227 (a and b), is made of lignum-vitae, and has an iron half-strap. The hooks fitted to this block are known as clip hooks. Similar hooks are shown in Fig. 228, but opening perpendicular to the sheave instead of opening in line with it. Hooks fitted as in Fig. 228 are known as sister hooks.

      Snatch-Blocks, Fig. 229, are always single and iron-bound, with swivel hooks. The shell at the breech is

left open, and the strap at that part fitted with a clamp, so that the bight of a rope may be "snatched."

      Telegraph-Blocks are pyramidal shaped blocks, with a number of small brass sheaves, used for making telegraphic signals.

      Top-Blocks, Fig. 233, Plate 31, are large, single, iron-bound blocks, used for sending up and down topmasts. They hook to an eye-bolt in the lower cap, hooking from in, out, so that the bill of the hook points outward, and the top pendants reeve through them. Sometimes shackled.

      Topgallant-top Block is similar to the above, but smaller. It is used for the topgallant-mast rope, and hooks from in, out, to an eyebolt in the topmast cap.

      Tye-Blocks are large, single, iron-bound blocks, which bolt or shackle to iron bands on the topsail yard, for the topsail tyes to reeve through.

      Viol-Blocks are large single blocks, with a swallow large enough to take a small hawser.

      In the navy-yards there are fourfold blocks of 30 inches and over, for heavy purchases.

      Block-and-Bock, or "two blocks," is the term applied to a tackle when its two blocks are drawn so close together that they cease to operate. The act of drawing the blocks apart is called fleeting the purchase, or overhauling it.

      Blocks should frequently be examined, not only as to strapping, but also by knocking the pin out and inspecting the bouching. The loss of power, and strain on rope, occasioned by a worn bouch, is considerable. The working blocks of tackles (for instance, the fly block of topsail halliards) are always more worn than the lower ones, and, therefore, without waiting until the sheaves shriek and become dumb, the blocks should be shifted and the sheaves transposed. This remark applies also to quarter-davit blocks.

      The sheave, on which the hauling part of the rope works, does most duty; and this calls for greater strength, and frequent alterations in upper blocks.

      All blocks which stand horizontally must be placed with the square end of the pin upwards: as, when the shell shrinks, it is liable to fall out if placed otherwise.

      Hanging, Tye, and Quarter-Blocks, undergo great strains when bracing sharp up; if the former are two blocks, the weather halliards should be eased up sufficiently.

      Hooks. There is no proportion for hooks, so that while handling heavy weights, unless the hooks be evidently very strong, it is safer to use a shackle or a good mousing. More accidents happen from open hooks than from chain or cordage. Great support may be given a hook by slipping a link or a shackle over the point, Fig. 234, Plate 31.

      Thimbles are made both perfectly round, and also

with the ends nearly joined. Two are sometimes united for the purpose of giving easy play to the adjoining straps or block, as well as a different stand. These are called Lock-Thimbles.

      The majority of the largest blocks supplied to men-of-war are iron-strapped; quarter-blocks, brace-blocks, clew-garnet-blocks, top-blocks, cat-blocks, blocks for boat falls, and many others are of this class. All the above, except the cat-blocks and top-blocks, are also provided with friction rollers, and the same may be said of nearly all iron-strapped blocks which are not subjected to very heavy strains. Some blocks are made entirely of iron, such as the jeer-blocks for small vessels, secured permanently in the chain sling. See also Fig. 231, for a treble iron block.

      Figs. 229 and 233 show one method of strapping blocks with iron. Another plan is to use inside iron straps, as in Figs. 230 and 232, which are probably the strongest straps yet devised.

      When not iron-strapped, blocks are fitted with straps of hemp or wire-rope.

      A wire-rope strap differs from a hemp one in being wormed, parcelled and served, and in being usually made of rope one half the size of the corresponding hemp strap. In wire straps for ordinary single blocks, the splice comes on the side instead of the breech, to avoid a nip near the splice.

      Hemp-rope for block-straps should be well-stretched, or until it begins to look "long-jawed," that is, the angle of the lay diminished.

      The common but rather rough rule for the size is, that the rope for the strap should be in circumference one third the length of the block, increasing the size for the straps of heavy purchase blocks; and the old rule requiring the block to be in length three times the size of the rope it reeves, brings the rope reeving and the strap about the same size.

      Once and a half the round of the block gives a good measure for the common strap, in which the two ends are joined by a short splice; first reeving the ends through the eye of the hook; a seizing of marline, houseline, spun-yarn, hambroline, or larger stuff, according to the size of the block, is then clapped on between the thimble and the block.

      The splice should be placed at the breech of the block. After getting a good strain on the strap, the splicing ends may be trimmed off.

      Covering block-straps at all is objectionable, particularly

if they are much exposed, as they decay more rapidly, and break without warning.

      To preserve straps from chafe, however, as in the case of purchase-blocks, they are either served or covered with canvas or leather.

      All blocks below twelve inches should be measured for straps with a piece of spun-yarn, around the block, in the score; and those above twelve inches, with a piece of small stuff, such as 6, 9, 12, or 15-thread ratline, in the same manner, as the size of the strap increases.

      A Threefold Block Strap. Large blocks for heavy work, such as the main purchase of masting sheers, &c., are strapped with eyes for toggling, as in Fig. 235, Plate 31.

      These blocks, being so unwieldly, require a purchase to heave the strap out, and a wedge, or large fid, to fix it in. When this block is strapped on board merchant ships, it is generally done in a vertical direction; reeving a rope through one of the sheave-holes, and making it fast to a ring-bolt, &c.; then hooking a stay tackle (c), Fig. 236, to the two bights of the strap, and setting it taut. A frapping, or temporary seizing, is next put on above the block, and hove well taut by a heaver. A large fid (e) is driven in betwixt the head and the frapping, and a stop of spun-yarn (d-which is too low down in the plate) is clapped on; being rove through the upper part of the sheave-hole on each side, and nippered round the strap with a heaver, which keeps it in its place. The fid is then knocked out, the frapping taken off, and the seizing clapped on as before. In men-of-war, when these blocks are strapped, they use a chock, instead of a fid, and a wedge is driven in between the chock and the block. The nipper (d) is taken round both the strap and block, and hove taut with a heaver.

      A Grommet-strap. Measure with a rope-yarn the neat round of the block, and the thimble, the latter placed at the proper distance from the end of the block. With this measure of rope-yarn, lay off on the rope intended for the strap (having previously got it on a stretch) three lengths from the end, marking each one distinctly, with chalk, and cut a little beyond the last mark, to allow for sticking the ends. Unlay the strand, bring the first and second chalk marks together, lay up the grommet and stick the ends. If well made, the grommet will lie flat on the deck. Before forming the grommet, the end must be rove through the eye of the hook. Get it on a stretch; worm, parcel and serve-cover with canvas, leather or point, as required; pass the seizing of marline, spunyarn, or small stuff, according to the size. These seizings are always crossed. This makes a neater strap than one which is spliced.

      A Common Strap, Fig. 237, Plate 31. First,

cut the rope once and a half the round of the block, get it on a stretch; worm, parcel and serve as near the end as possible, not to interfere with splicing; then splice the ends together with a short splice, and finish serving snug up to the splice. Stretch it and cut the ends off, or you may serve over the ends. If there are a number of these straps required, it would be best to get the rope on a stretch, and serve off the required number before cutting.

      The Single Strap, with Lashing Eyes. Besides being fitted with hook and thimble, the single strap may be fitted with lashing eyes, as in the case of jewel-blocks, &c. when they are made as in Fig. 238, Plate 31.

      The Double Strap, Figs. 239 and 240, a and b, Plate 31. When strapping large blocks, requiring considerable strength, as in heavy purchases, or when a certain lead is required, the double strap is used, which is simply a single strap of twice the usual length, doubled.

      The double strap may be fitted with the thimble only, Fig. 240, with the hook and thimble, or with lashing eyes, Fig. 239.

      The leading blocks at the fife-rail are strapped, as in Fig. 240, the thimble playing on a thwartship-rod of iron, otherwise they would not give the fore-and-aft lead.

      The Two Single Straps, Fig. 241. It may happen that the double strap will not give the block the desired lead, in which case two single straps are used.

      When not iron-strapped, the tye-blocks on the topsail-yards are fitted as in Fig. 241 (a), Plate 31, with lashing eyes.

      The same strap is required for jeer blocks when rope strapped, to give a fore-and-aft lead.

      Strap and Pendant. When a single block is strapped with a pendant, an eye is spliced in the latter much larger than the circumference of the block, and a good seizing, is then hove on as in Fig. 242.

      Tail-blocks, Fig. 243, Plate 31, are used for single whips, and, generally, whenever a single block is used temporarily. A piece of rope may be spliced around a block, leaving a long tail with the end whipped, or may be unlaid and plaited, as in the figure. Such a block is used in the main rigging for the fore topmast studding-sail tack, and a double one when the boom-brace is used. Sometimes the yarns of the tail are merely opened out and marled down, selvagee fashion.

      The double block of a jigger is often strapped with two such tails, and called by sailors a handy billy. This is very convenient for clapping on anywhere, as when getting the topsail sheets close home. &c. Fig. 264, Plate 35.

      Rules for Cutting and Fitting all the usual kinds of hemp straps will be found in Appendix B.

      A Tackle is an assemblage of ropes and blocks, and is known in mechanics as a system of pulleys.

      The simplest contrivance of this kind is the single whip, or girtline, which consists of a rope rove through a single stationary block. By this arrangement, a better lead is given the rope, but no power is gained by it.

      But this arrangement is extremely convenient and often absolutely necessary, as in hoisting articles from the holds to the upper decks, or from the decks to the masts and yards.

      It is quite different, however, when the single block is movable, or attached to the weight to be moved, and generally these two principles obtain in all tackles, namely, that stationary blocks give no gain, but only serve as a lead to the rope, and all increase of power is derived from movable blocks.

      The block having the greatest number of parts of the fall should be attached to the weight to be moved, in order to gain the greatest mechanical advantage. The power gained is equal to the number of parts at the movable block.

      As, in all purchases, a considerable proportion of power is expended in overcoming friction alone, and as stationary blocks, while they serve to augment friction, yield no mechanical advantage, there should be as many movable blocks as possible.

      To Determine the Relation of Power to Weight in any system of pulleys, we have to remember that the tension on a rope is the same throughout, from the point hauled on to that at which it is made fast, friction not considered. If we then make a figure of a system of pulleys, tracing up the tension on each part, marking the hauling part as 1, we find the purchase by adding the values thus assigned to each part of rope at the weight, or reeving through the block at the weight. When the rope itself starts with a doubled power as at A, Fig. 253, each part of such a rope must be marked 2; if it starts with a quadrupled power as at B, Fig. 255, each part must be marked 4, &c.

      Plate 32 shows the manner of estimating the power in this way, with the forms of purchase in ordinary use.

Fig. 244, Single whip; power gained, none.
Fig. 245, The same with block at the weight; power gained, 2.
Fig. 246, Gun tackle, purchase, power gained, 2.
Fig. 247, The same inverted, power gained, 3.
Fig. 248, A luff tackle, power gained, 3.
Fig. 249, The same inverted, power gained, 4.
Fig. 250, Double purchase, power gained, 4.
Fig. 251, The same inverted, power gained, 5.
Fig. 252, Single Spanish burton, power gained, 3.
Fig. 253, Double Spanish burton, power gained, 5.
Fig. 254, Bell purchase, for topsail halliards, power gained, 7.
Fig. 255, Luff upon luff, power gained, 16.

      In the above estimate for Bell purchase, the angle between the two parts, C, D, should be considered.

      The general rule for ascertaining the power necessary to raise a given weight with a tackle, is to divide the weight to be raised by the number of parts of rope at the movable block or blocks, the quotient being the power required to produce an equilibrium, friction not considered.

      To ascertain the amount of purchase required to raise a given weight with a given power, divide the weight by the power, and the quotient will be the number of parts of rope which must be attached to the lower block.

      To ascertain what weight given tackling will raise, the weight a single rope will bear is multiplied by the number of parts at the moving block.

      When one tackle is put upon another, multiply the two powers together to get the total amount of purchase gained. Thus with a luff tackle, with four parts at the movable block, the gain is four. A luff upon luff would give an increase of 16 times, another luff clapped on to the fall of the second, 16 x 4, or 64 times, &c.

      These rules require considerable modification for friction.

      Power can only be increased at the expense of time, hence there are many cases on board ship where a great deal of purchase would be a positive disadvantage. Were treble-blocks used for the side tackles of a broadside gun, the gun could be run out more easily than with a double and a single block, but then it would be longer in running out, and there would be an inconvenient accumulation of fall.

      The tackles of a broadside gun furnish a good illustration of the relative advantages of the stationary and movable blocks. The train tackle, as ordinarily hooked, yields the greatest advantage for running the gun in. If, through inadvertence, the blocks were reversed, the effort would be applied to rouse the train bolt out of the deck, rather than to run the gun in. The side tackle is necessarily hooked so

as to afford the least mechanical advantage, in order to give a proper lead to the fall.

      Friction. Perhaps we shall not be far wrong if we estimate one sixth of the original force to be consumed by friction each time the rope passes round a sheave. Thus, supposing the tension or strain on the hauling part be 6, that on the next will be 5, the next 4, the next 3, and so on. So that if the strain on the fall of a two-fold tackle be 6, the strains on the parts of the rope will be represented by the figures 6, 5, 4, 3, and their sum, 18, will nearly represent the power of the tackle, instead of 24, which it would have been had there been no friction; or about one fourth of the force would have been consumed by it.

      If the rope which passes round the sheave of the block be small, it will be more flexible; a less force will be necessary to "nip" it round the sheave, and there will be less resistance by friction against the inside of the shell of the block.

      From these considerations, we gather that work is lightened by using large blocks and small ropes; the boatswain's rule, that the hauling part of a fall bears double the strain of the standing part, is not far wrong; that as the pin of a block is more worn on one of its sides, it should be frequently turned; and that as sheaves nearest the standing part do least duty, they should be shifted occasionally with the others.

      There are about five different purchases in common use, viz.:

      A Single Whip, Fig. 256, Plate 33, which consists of a single stationary block and fall. By it the power can be more convenient y applied to the weight, but no power is gained. It is therefore, in reality, no purchase at all. The term whip is sometimes applied to tackles, as the water-whips.

      A Runner, Fig. 257, Plate 33, a single movable block and fall. In this case, the fall is called the runner, and has a thimble spliced in the end, for hooking a purchase to. By it the power is doubled. The main bowline and topsail tyes are instances of runners. Runners, as in the figure, are used for setting up backstays, and generally wherever they can be applied to advantage.

      A Gun Tackle Purchase, Fig. 258, Plate 33, is composed of two single blocks, strapped with hook and thimble, the standing part of the fall bent to the becket, or spliced into the strap of the block from which the fall leads. The advantage derived from this purchase has been given already. Its gain is as 1 to 3.

      A Luff Tackle, Fig. 259, Plate 33, consists of a double and single block, each strapped with a hook and thimble, the standing part of fall bent to the becket, or spliced into the strap of the single block. If the double

block is hooked to the weight, the power is multiplied four times; if the single block, then but three times, &c.

      A Twofold Purchase, Fig. 260, Plate 33, consists of two double blocks, the standing and hauling part leading from the same block, and on opposite sides, so that the block will not cant. The power gained is four or five times, as it may be applied.

      A Threefold Purchase consists of two treble blocks, having the fall and standing part leading from the same block, and from opposite sides. Its power is six or seven times.

      The foregoing are the principal kinds of purchase in use on board ship; all others are combinations or modifications of these, and take their names from the purpose for which or place where used, the following being those in most general use.

      Boom Tackle, or boom-jiggers, used in large ships for rigging in and out the studding-sail booms. In schooners, the tackle which guys the main boom forward, when going large.

      Burtons are light tackles. The term burton by itself, is generally understood to apply to those which are nearly always kept hooked to the pendants, at the topmast heads, ready for use, and called top burtons. They are the same purchase as a luff, but instead of the common double block like a luff, it has a fiddle block, both for neatness and convenience, there being but little room close up under the eyes of the topmast rigging. The falls of these burtons are long enough to permit both the lower block and hauling end to reach the deck, with plenty to spare, while the upper block is hooked to the topmast pendant.

      Spanish Burtons are of various styles.

      A single Spanish burton, Fig. 261, Plate 33, consists of two single blocks, the standing part spliced in to the strap of the movable block and the bight seized or bent to the hook. This increases the power three times.

      The double Spanish burton, Fig. 253, Plate 32, has one double and two single blocks the standing part spliced in the strap of one single block, then rove through the double or fixed block, and the bight seized to the strap of the lower block, to which the weight to be lifted is hooked. The end is then rove up through the double block, through the lower and lastly through the single block to which the standing part is secured. This purchase gives an increase of five times the power applied. Figure 254, Bell's purchase, increases the power seven times.^*

      A Deck Tackle is a heavy purchase, of a double and single, or two double blocks. It is used for rousing in chains, and for heavy work generally.

      Fish Tackle is a heavy purchase of double or treble blocks, used for fishing the anchor; that is, for raising the crown to get the inner fluke up to the bill-board after catting.

      A Fore-and-aft Tackle is one used to get the awnings on a fore-and-aft stretch. The term is also of general application to any tackle whose use, for the time being, may be in the direction of the length of the ship. In the same way we have thwartship-tackles.

      The Griolet Purchase, Fig. 263, Plate 34, for dismounting guns on covered decks, is composed of-

      A toggle block, made of elm or oak, the outer end or head of which is made rather greater in diameter than the inner one, which exactly fits the bore of the gun. The head has two sheaves in it, so as to form the lower block of the muzzle purchase, and is bound at the outer end with an iron band.

      A double cascable block of iron is made usually with a shackle, to fit between the jaws of the cascable, where it is secured by the cascable pin. The iron pins on which the sheaves revolve are formed with eyes, for the convenience of hitching the standing part of the purchase.

      Two iron treble blocks, one for the upper muzzle and the other for the breech purchase.

      The muzzle purchase block is so fitted as to be either shackled or toggled to the housing bolt above the port, and the breech purchase block has an iron strap terminating above, with an eye by which it is shackled to a bolt passing through the deck above the gun. This bolt has an eye in one end and a screw or key-slit at the other, and when in place, is secured above the deck with a nut or key, between which and the deck a washer of hard wood or iron, of suitable breadth and thickness, is placed.

      The hole through which this bolt is put, should be directly above the cascable block when the muzzle of the gun is under the housing bolt, and may be bored at the time the gun is to be dismounted; and bouched with a composition screw-tap.

      The purchase falls should not be less than three and a half inches in size, and should be made of manilla rope of sufficient length to reeve full, the gun being supposed to be on deck and the upper blocks in place, allowing also sufficient end for splicing in the thimble and hitching the standing part of the purchase when rove.

      An iron thimble large enough to hook the double block of a side, or train tackle, is spliced in to the end of each purchase fall.

      Garnet Tackle is the purchase used in getting guns in on a covered deck. The garnet itself is a single piece of rope or a pendant passed through a hole, bored for the purpose in the spar deck, and has a hook and thimble

spliced in one end, and a thimble in the other, or upper en 1, to which the pendant tackle hooks.

      Girtlines are, generally, single whips. The name applies particularly to those used at the mast-head in getting up tops, rigging, &c., when rigging ship. Hammock Girtlines are simply lines on which to stop scrubbed hammocks for drying. They are fitted in various ways, and formerly had permanent (nettle) stops attached; but now the "long" or harbor clothes-lines are used for the purpose.

      Gun Tackle. A double and a single block, or two double blocks. Gun-tackle falls are made of manilla, or such other pliable rope as may be directed from time to time by the Bureau of Ordnance. It is prohibited to blacken them or to diminish their pliability. Three-inch rope will be found large enough for the heaviest, and from 2 1/4 to 2 1/2-inch for the lighter guns.

      The rope being well stretched, the falls are cut of sufficient length to allow the full recoil, leaving end enough to hitch round the straps of their double blocks, when hooked to the middle or fighting bolts.

      Gun Tackle Purchase. See ante. Two single blocks.

      Hatch Tackles. These are common luff purchases, and are used generally in the hatches over the holds. When the upper block is required to be above the spar deck, it should not be permitted to hook to the lower stay, but to a long pendant, hooking to the lower cap and stopped out to the stay by a lizard.

      Jeers, for sending up and down the lower yards, are variously rove. The plan now is, to have one or two double or treble purchases according to the size of the yard. For small vessels the blocks (iron) are fitted in one with the slings, Fig. 262, Plate 33.

      Jiggers, Fig. 264, Plate 35, are small luffs, having the double block strapped with one or two tails, and are used for a great variety of purposes about decks.

      Luff Tackle. Double and single block, as already described. But rigging luffs used in setting up rigging are either double or single. Double rigging luffs may be ordinary luff tackles or double purchases, used for setting up lower stays, and called stay luffs. Single rigging luffs have two single blocks, and are used in setting up shrouds.

      We then have –

      In former days when ships' batteries were light, the gun tackles had only two single blocks, hence the term, gun-tackle purchase; a heavier purchase is required with modern ordnance.

      Rigging luffs in former days were composed of double and single blocks, but in time were made up with two single blocks instead, as the double block was too large, much in the way, and liable to split in setting up shrouds.

      Retaining the old names, and changing the tackles themselves, has caused a confusion of terms which the above table is intended to simplify.

      Pendant Tackles are large tackles, composed of double blocks. They hook to the mast-head pendants, whence their name, and are used for setting up lower rigging, staying the mast, or steadying it under certain emergencies.

      Propeller Purchase. A purchase used in tricing up the propeller. See Fig. 277, Plate 40.

      Reef Tackles are for rousing the leeches of the top-sails and courses up to the yard arms for reefing. They are variously fitted, and may be either a luff or a gun-tackle purchase, as will be explained hereafter.

      Relieving Tackles are for the purpose of hooking to the tiller, in order to steer the ship in the event of the wheel ropes being shot away in action, or to assist in steering in very heavy weather, when the motions of the rudder are sudden and violent. Double and single block.

      Rolling Tackles hook to the quarters of the yards (lower and top-sail) and to the mast, for the purpose of steadying the yards in a heavy sea, when the ship rolls much, and to relieve the strain on the trusses, slings, or parrel.

      Rudder Tackles hook to the rudder chains or pendants, to steer the ship in case of accident to the tiller or rudder head.

      Runners have already been described.

      A Runner and Tackle, Fig. 265, Plate 35, is simply composed of a tackle (double and single block) attached to a runner. They are for aiding in staying the lower masts. The power gained is eight times.

      Stay Tackles are those which hook to the triatic stay, or a lower stay, and are called respectively, forestay tackle and mainstay tackle-used in getting the boats in and out. These are large double or treble purchases with a hook and several links of chain on the lower blocks. One link is round, and into it hooks the yard tackle.

      Side Tackle for running out and training broadside guns. A double and a single or two double blocks.

      A Sail Tackle, Fig. 266, Plate 35. The upper block is often double; the small single block below is to act as a fair leader, and the fall to act as a guy in keeping the

sail clear of the yards and top when swaying aloft. The burtons are used as sail tackles.

      Stock and Bill Tackle is a small tackle used when securing the anchor.

      Train Tackle is composed of a double and a single or two double blocks for running in a broadside gun, or to prevent it from running out in a sea-way, while loading.

      Tricing Lines are generally single whips. Sometimes, however, they are gun-tackle purchases, as the fore-topmast studding sail boom tricing lines.

      Watch Tackle. A common luff purchase or jigger.

      A Whip and Runner. Similar to a runner and tackle, but smaller. The main bowline of a large ship is a whip and runner.

      Yard Tackles are large tackles used on the lower yards, in connection with the stay tackles, for getting the boom-boats in and out, purchasing anchors, &c. They are called fore and main yard tackles, respectively, and are fitted with large double or treble blocks, strapped with single hooks. Fig. 230 shows an inside iron-strapped treble block for yard tackle.

      Water Whips are tackles for hoisting in water, when it is brought off in gang casks; or for medium weights generally.

      Besides the yard and stay tackles described above, for hoisting in and out boats, lighter purchases, known as the yard and stay water whips, are used for getting in provisions, Fig. 267.

      This purchase consists of two water-whips. The upper block of the stay whip has a pendant which hooks into the lower cap, and is fitted with a lizard hauling it out to the collar of the lower stay, where it is secured.

      The upper block of the yard whip is fitted with a strap as in Fig. 267 to go around the yard arm. Both lower blocks may be fitted with chain pendants and hooks. Sometimes the lower stay block alone is fitted with chain, the lower yard block having a hook only.

      Besides the foregoing, there are various jiggers and whips, all of which will be explained when used.

      General Remarks. One great advantage of a tackle on board ship, which renders its application of constant occurrence when mere power is not wanting, must not be overlooked; as, for example, when hoisting, a jerking is to be avoided, and a steady, gradual strain required, as in staying a mast. Another advantage of a purchase, when fitted to any part of a ship's rigging, is that on coming up, when some little must necessarily be given back, only a mere fractional part is lost on the rope itself, as in the laniard of a dead-eye, &c.

      The greater the amount of purchase used, the steadier will be the strain.

      The swallow of a block should be full large in proportion to the size of the fall; generally one-tenth of an inch swallow for every one-fourth of an inch in circumference of the rope.

      The fall of a purchase should have as clear a lead as possible, and the hauling part be in a line parallel to the rest of the purchase.

      A score is generally cut in the breech of a block to admit the standing part of the fall being passed under the strap, so as to splice the end into its own part. When this is done, the splice should be tapered and neatly served over with marline. But in jiggers, luffs, deck and pendant tackles, the standing part is bent to a becket, worked around the strap of the single block, with a sheet or becket bend, and the end stopped down. This is to allow the fall to be shifted, end for end, or to be unrove at pleasure.

      By reason of friction, the becket in the breech of the standing block may be much less in size than the fall, as the fall there bears less strain than at the hauling part, and the greater the number of parts of a fall, the greater will this difference be. Notwithstanding this, in heavy purchases, where great weights are to be moved, the standing part is hitched around the neck of the strap, between the block and the thimble; and it is a good precaution, when using any tackle for a great strain, to cast off the standing part from the becket and hitch it around the strap. In large blocks, the standing part is made to go on the side opposite to that from which the fall leads, making it lead fairer, and preventing the tendency of the block to slew in the strap. Fig. 268, Plate 35.

      When a racking is to be put on a purchase fall, the hauling part is racked to the part next to it.

      Sometimes, as in the case of a boat's fall, by the block capsizing, or through carelessness in overhauling, the fall gets a thoroughfoot in it-that is, the parts get crossed; before use the thoroughfoot must be taken out.

      The following is the result of a carefully-executed experiment with tackles:

      A tackle of 2 upper and 1 lower sheave requires on the fall 3/5 of the weight of the resistance in order to raise it, but only 1/4 to sustain it in its place. In hoisting, the standing part takes a strain of about 1/3 of the weight suspended, 1/4 in keeping it suspended, and 2/5 in lowering the weight. When composed of one upper and one lower sheave, the fall of the tackle requires the exertion of a power equal to about 5/9 of the weight to move it, and 4/9 to keep it in equilibrium, so that the strap should be 3 times the strength of the fall, or 1 1/2 times its size.

      The Purchase gained by Swigging Off.

      What is called swigging off-that is, pulling at right angles to a rope, is, at first, a very great power; but it decreases as the rope is pulled out of the straight line. A purchase upon this principle may be conveniently applied to several purposes. By it a boat may be hauled up on the beach. At some distance up from the water, drive in a stake, and near the water, in a line with the boat, drive in another. To the upper stake secure the boat's painter, passing it along against the lower one. Now, by swigging off upon the painter midway between the stakes, the boat's crew will pull with an increased power, and if this be insufficient, it may be increased by moving the stakes farther apart.

      Wooden Lower-masts are made of several pieces, united by dowels or coaks, and hoops.

      In the United States Navy, the made masts consist of four principal pieces, each of which consists of two or more parts, scarfed together, when a whole piece, of sufficient length, cannot be obtained. These pieces are placed as in Plate 36 P. The inner corner of each piece is taken off so as to leave a square hole extending throughout the whole length of the mast, in its axis. This admits of a closer contact of the parts of the mast with each other when the hoops are set up, and does not take from the strength of the spar. This hole is one-tenth of the diameter of the mast in size.

      The hoops are placed from three to three and a half feet apart from each other, and are from four and one-quarter to five inches wide, and from four-eighths to five-eighths of an itch thick, according to the class of ships the mast is made for. They must, however, be kept clear of the wedges at the partners. The scarfings of the piece must be kept clear of each other (that is, the points of junction in one piece must be as far as possible from those in another piece), and equally distributed in the mast. There is a chafing batten on the forward part of the mast, about one-fourth the diameter of the mast in width, and one-eighth in thickness.

      The principal parts of a mast are the head, hounds, bibbs, neck, partners and heel.

      The head, A B, Plate 36, extends from the upper extremity of the mast to the top of the hounds, and is one-sixth of the whole length of the mast, nearly.

      The hounds are the shoulders produced by enlarging the diameter of the mast a few inches at the lower limit of the head.

      To the sides of the hounds of the lower masts are bolted, and otherwise secured, fitted pieces of oak, of the shape shown in Plate 36, and called bibbs (B c). These, with the hounds, form the foundation for the tressle-trees. The small part of the mast, just below the bibbs, is called the neck.

      Where the mast is wedged, at D, is called the partners; but a more correct definition of the term is given on page 7.

The lower part of the mast, E, is called the heel, and the upper projection, A, the tenon.

      The doublings of masts are where the head of one mast doubles on the heel of the other.

      The yards, booms, and masts are usually made of yellow pine and spruce. The latter is selected for small spars.

      Masts are most liable to decay at the heel, partners, and cap.

      Masts are most liable to spring at the partners, tail of bibbs and hounds; bowsprits at the cap and on top between the gammoning and cap.

      Tops are constructed of two thicknesses of white or yellow pine, with the rim, lubber-band and battens of white oak. The upper cross-trees are fayed down over the battens, and secured to the lower cross-trees by bolts at each end, and by four staples and toggles, so as to be readily removed when it is necessary to lift the top.

      The Bowsprit is represented in full length in Plate 36. At the side the bees are shown extending from the cap to the housing, or where the octagonal form commences.

      The parts marked 2 are of iron, and to them shackle the hearts for the inner, middle, and cap bob-stays.

      The bowsprit cap is iron-bound. To an eye-bolt on the lower side is hooked the dolphin-striker.

      Above the strap for the middle bobstay is an eye-bolt, to which hooks the whisker, 3.

      Next outside is a sheave for the fore-topmast stay. An iron strap marked 1, containing a heavy, solid thimble, is for the fore-stay. There is one on each side.

      Eye-bolts are represented on top of the bees, for bowline blocks, 4.

      The eyes to which shackle hearts for bowsprit shrouds are not represented.

      The Jib-Boom is represented in its place. The heel is cut to fit in a saddle bolted on the top of the bowsprit, and is clamped down by an iron strap; a short distance outboard is a sheave for a heel-rope.

      Just inside the hounds is a sheave-hole for the jib-stay. Over the hounds fits an iron band having three shackles; one for the jib martingale stay, and one each side for the jib-guys. Immediately outside this band is a score for the foretop-gallant stay.

      Lastly comes the wythe, a species of iron cap to support the flying jib-boom.

      The Lower Mast has the cap on. To an eye in each end of a strap passing over the cap, shackle the chain slings for the lower yard. A back-strap about halfway down the mast-head, gives it a better lead.

      The double block, hooked to an eye-bolt in the cap, is for the lower lift. The single block is the top-block for sending

up the topmast. The chafing-batten is shown on the forward side.

      The tressle-trees are in place. Just below the bibbs comes the band for the patent truss, and below it the futtock-band to which shackle the futtock-shrouds.

      The Topmast has the cross-trees and cap on.

      The forward part of the tressle-trees has a clamp. By opening this the sending up and down of the top-gallant masts is greatly facilitated. The eye-bolts under the tressle-trees are for the hanging-blocks for the head halliards.

      One gin-block, for topsail-tye, is represented in its place. It should be hooked to the eye of a strap fitting over the tressle-trees and between the doublings.

      In the forward part of topmast cap, are eye-bolts for the top-gallant top-block, and standing part of top-gallant mast-rope. Fitting over the topmast cap is an iron strap with a link in each end for block of topmast studding-sail halliards.

      The Lower Yard has in the centre a stout iron span, to which hook the slings.

      The two lower blocks are for the topsail-sheets. The two partly concealed are for the clew-garnets and hook on the forward quarter.

      On the after side of the yard is nailed a chafing-batten.

      Next outside is the quarter-iron for topmast studding-sail boom.

      Next comes an iron burton-strap.

      Outside of it is shown the eye-bolt for head-earing of the course.

      On the yard-arm are the brace and lift blocks, shackled to an iron band.

      Outside of all is the "pacific iron" on which fits the boom-iron.

      The bending-jackstay (iron) is seen on the top of the yard.

      The truss is shown in a separate figure.

      The transverse section of the mast P shows the method of joining the principal pieces of which a mast is made.

      The Topsail Yard, in two views, shows the jaws, tye-blocks, bending-jackstay, quarter-blocks for topgallant sheets and additional blocks, forward, for top-sail clew-lines.

      Over the topmast head is frequently fitted a rectangular funnel of metal with a projecting flange at the base to receive a quarter-round piece of wood, or bolster, upon. which the eyes of the rigging rest.

      Round funnels are also fitted for the top-gallant and royal mast-heads, and on them are fitted the eyes of the top-gallant and royal rigging.

      Yard-Slings, Y, Plate 36, are of chain, in length twice that of their respective mast-heads; to which must be

added half the length of the forward lower cross-tree, that being the distance the yard should hang below the top. The upper section, i.e., above the top, should be shackled together, keckled with a piece of large stuff to make it round, and neatly covered with canvas. The size of the chain necessarily depends on the weight it is required to support.

      They hook to the yard by the sling-hook, as represented in the plate.

      Preventer Slings for topsail yards, used when preparing for action, are made of chain and go around the mast-head.

      Iron Masts. In the equipment of ships one of the modern applications of iron has been its use in constructing lower masts.

      An iron lower mast is made up of plates, each bent to form an arc of a circle, usually 120 degrees, and connected at the edges and ends by through-riveted lap-joints or covering strips, the structure being usually stiffened by continuous interior T, or angle-irons.

      Iron masts are commonly made of the same diameter as the wooden masts they have replaced, and for large ships are generally lighter than wooden masts of the same dimensions. The iron lower masts used in the British navy are more expensive than wooden masts of the same dimensions, and are of nearly equal weight, but the advantages gained in strength and durability are such as to outweigh the consideration of expense.

      Fig. A, Plate 37, shows the section of an iron lower mast, in which there are four plates in the circumference, connected by double-riveted lap-joints, and stiffened by four continuous angle-irons worked upon the centre of each plate.

      Fig. B, Plate 37, shows the angle-iron stiffeners placed so that the edge riveting shall work in as fastenings in the stiffners.

      In order to stiffen masts still further, the flanges of the stiffening bars are often connected by braces or horizontal stays. These stays afford a means of climbing up inside the mast for the purpose of inspecting, cleaning and painting it. The stays are placed at intervals of from 4 to 6 feet. Fig. C, Plate 37, shows the earlier, and Fig. D the latest practice in the British service in strengthening the iron lower masts.

      Figs. E and F, Plate 37, show the mode of fitting wooden trestle-trees to an iron mast. As there are no shoulders at the hounds, special provision has to be made for supporting the trestle-trees, and this is accomplished by working a plate and a ring of angle-iron around the mast, and fitting plate-knees, k k, which correspond with the bibbs usually fitted below the trestle-trees of a wooden mast. The plan E

shows the spread of the knees and the arrangement of the plate and angle-iron below the trestle-tree.

      It is usual to work doubling plates upon the lower masts in the wake of the wedging decks. These plates give additional rigidity in wake of the wedges, and also prevent corrosion in the mast-plate Itself.

      Fig. G, Plate 37, shows the ordinary mode of forming the heel of an iron lower mast. The end of the mast is dosed by a circular plate fitted against and connected with the outside plating. In the centre of this plate there is a square hole, around which the angle-iron frame a is fitted, the vertical flange of the angle-iron thus forming the sides of a mortice in the heel. When in place, the mast rests on a stepping plate, upon which is riveted a rectangular box-shaped frame of iron b, and the tenon thus formed fits into the mortice in the heel of the mast.

      A man-hole is usually cut a few feet from the lower end of an iron mast to give access to the interior and for ventilation; other openings are also made at various heights for the latter purpose.

      Iron and steel have also been used in the construction of topmasts, topgallant masts and yards, but in these spars the advantages resulting from the change from wood are not so great as in the case of lower masts. The details of construction for the lighter spars do not differ greatly in principle from those described for lower masts. The plating is usually flush-jointed, and the larger spars have angle-iron, or other interior stiffeners.

      Masting. In fitting out our men-of-war, advantage is taken of every facility which a navy-yard affords. The rigging is cut out by the draft furnished by the constructors, using the Equipment Book of Allowances as a guide. The masts are placed by the navy-yard sheers, and the hold stowed by regular stevedores.

      When the navy-yard sheers are used, the mast is brought down from the spar-shed and placed with its head toward the ship under the sheers, or masting-derrick, the garland lashed on and the main purchase toggled, the fall being taken to the capstan, or crab, built for the purpose. Convenience determines which mast is to be taken in first. After placing one mast, the ship is hauled ahead, or dropped astern, to bring the other partners plumb under the purchase.

      In the following outline of masting, the work is assumed to be done without the conveniences of a yard. The vessel, a frigate, is supposed to be lying in the stream, and her spars, &c., towed off.

      Proceed to support the spar-deck for the weight it will have to sustain, by shoring it up fore and aft,^* particularly

those beams immediately under the places to be occupied by the sheers when getting in the masts.

      Sling skids outside leading from the gunwale to the channels, and from the channels to the water's edge; block up a half-rounded spar in the hammock netting, the upper surface being well slushed, to lead the parbuckle over, and proceed.

      To Reeve the Parbuckle, Fig. 269, Plate 38. The main parbuckle consists of a hawser of a suitable size-say 5-inch-which is middled and the ends rove through the spar deck ports, a few ports apart (the distance depending on the length of the sheer legs), from out, in, leaving the bight outside. The sheer legs having been towed alongside, with their heads aft, pass the after end of the parbuckle down under the head of the first sheer leg, up over the gunwale to the opposite water-ways, where the end is snatched and led forward, having a long luff clapped on it, if found necessary. The forward end of the parbuckle is led in like manner, taking it under the heel of the sheer leg, and thence to the capstan.

      The Counter Parbuckles, a a, Fig. 269, are rove in a contrary way, for easing the sheer legs inboard. They are rove through the same ports, from in, out, leaving the centre bight inboard, and the two end bights hanging down inside to catch the sheer leg when it comes over the gunwale; the ends are led down through the gun deck ports and taken around spars lashed fore and aft in the ports, having hands to attend them to ease the sheer legs down. Have a stout spar laid across the gunwale well aft to rest the heads of the sheer legs on when on board.

      When ready, clap on the luff, man the bars, and "walk away." When "high enough," or up with the gunwale, "avast heaving," arrange the counter parbuckles under head and heel, and set taut. Now pull up on the main, and ease away on the counter parbuckle, land the heel on the deck, the head resting on the thwartship spar placed for the purpose, roll it over, lift the heel over the capstan and get it in its proper position for forming the sheers; a spar may be placed from the gunwale to the capstan, and the sheer leg got thence to the opposite water-ways. The second sheer leg is got on board in the same manner, and placed for lashing.

      Note. Instead of using parbuckles, the sheer legs may be got on board by means of a pair of small sheers, raked over the taffrail.

      Fore and main topmasts or lower yards may be used for sheer legs; in the latter case, the yard-arms must be well strengthened, or fished and woolded, by lashing around them small spars, or made fishes of stout oak plank, using well-stretched rope, and tautening the lashes by wedges. The lashing around the spar is termed a woolding.

      The Sheers. The sheer legs being on board, cross their heads (with the port leg uppermost if the masts are taken in on the starboard side), square the heels and spread them about two-thirds the breadth of beam at the mizzen partners, so that when spread out to their full extent, the sheer head lashings may be tautened.

      For sheer head lashings, take a piece of good 3 1/2 or 4-inch rope, well stretched, middle it and make one end fast to the sheer leg, near the cross; with the other end pass the requisite number of figure-of-eight turns round both spars and take a couple of half-hitches with the end around one leg. With the first end, pass a number of round turns, filling up the intervals between the figure-of-eight turns, pass frapping, or cross turns, and secure the two ends with a square knot.

      After passing the sheer head lashing, spread the heels and place them in the shoes. The shoes should be of stout oak plank, long enough to rest upon at least two of the spar deck beams. A saucer is cut out of the centre to rest the heel in, and on the forward and after side an eye-bolt is placed for lashing the heel to. There are eye-bolts in the forward and after ends, for hooking fore and aft shoe-tackles to, to aid in the transportation of the sheers. Lash the heel to the shoe temporarily. Hook the after heel tackles to straps around the heels and set them taut, and, as an additional security, when raising the sheers, shift the forward heel tackles aft.

      The Main Purchase. Lash on the upper block of the main purchase, so that it will hang directly under the cross. It should be a large threefold block, strapped with two single straps and fitted with a large thimble, to hang by a lashing passing over the cross of the shear head.

      The straps of the main purchase blocks should be well parcelled and marled. The lower block is double-strapped, with eyes for toggling, Fig. 235, Plate 31. Take the lower block of the main purchase to the bowsprit hole, and toggle it there with a suitable spar.

      The fall should be new 5 1/4-in. Manilla rope. Begin with the standing part and reeve it from forward, aft, through the side sheave of the upper block, beginning on the side opposite to that intended for taking in the masts; thence through the corresponding sheave in the lower block, and so on until rove full, when clove hitch it around one of the forks close to the lashing, and stop the end down to its own part. Snatch the fall in some convenient place near where the lower block has been toggled, and take it to the capstan.

      If apprehensive that the upper purchase block will slue in its strap, by the greatest strain coming on one side, the fall may be rove so as to lead from the centre sheave –

but this brings a cross in the fall, and is, therefore, objectionable.

      The Small Purchase, Guys, &c. The upper block of the small purchase is double, and lashes to the after fork so as to play clear of the main purchase. Lash a single block to each fork above the small purchase and reeve stout girtlines. For sheer-head guys, clove-hitch a couple of stout hawsers over the sheer head, leading two ends forward and two aft, and to each clap on a luff-upon-luff for convenience in setting up and easing off, without surging. Belly guys are put on in the same way, about one-third the distance down each leg, cleating the hitches to prevent slipping, and clapping on luffs. On each sheer leg just above the shoe, put good straps, and hook and set well taut a thwartship tackle to ease the strain on the water-ways; lastly, pass a bulwark lashing either to the bulwark, or to a stout toggle placed outside of the spar-deck ports.

      Raising the Sheers. The main purchase fall, being led to the capstan, the heels temporarily lashed to the shoes, and the forward and after shoe and heel tackles, both hooked aft, to prevent the sheers from launching forward as the strain is brought on the main purchase; the thwart-ship heel tackle set well taut, and plenty of hands to take in the slack of forward guys, and others to attend after ones, man the capstan, and heave around, catching the sheers as they rise, by the thwartship spar.

      When nearly up and down, or at an angle of about eighty degrees with the spar deck, "avast heaving," lash the heels in the shoes securely, shift the forward heel and shoe tackles, cast off the bulwark lashings, and transport the sheers to just forward of the mizzen partners (having previously wet the deck), by moving one leg at a time. The sheers should have a slight rake aft, and the main purchase hang plumb with the mast-hole. The fall may lead through a block toggled through the ward-room sky-light and thence to the capstan. When the sheers are in position, set up the after head and belly guys, leading to the quarters; and the forward ones, leading well forward; set taut the thwartship tackle, and pass the bulwark lashings, or substitute for it a good tackle-the main object of which is to prevent the opposite heel from rising when raising the mast from the water. Now overhaul down outside the main purchase and toggle to the garland on the mizzen-mast. Fig. 271, Plate 38.

      The Derrick. It may occur that the angle of the sheers with the deck, before raising, is so small that the main purchase will not be effective, in which case it will be necessary to start them up with a derrick, as follows:

      A small stout spar (say a stump top-gallant mast) is

placed between the cross of the sheer-forks, where it is retained by a loose lashing. Hook a stout tackle from the head of this spar to the sheers, and attach two other (canting and heel) jiggers together with head-guys, as in Fig. 272, Plate 39. With these, get it erect, slushing the spar and the forks at their points of contact. Now, with the assistance of the tackle, the head of the sheers can be elevated to a considerable degree, and the main purchase made to act, at an angle sufficiently great, to raise the sheers without further difficulty.

      Getting in the Lower Masts. The mizzen mast is taken in first, because the breadth of beam is less aft, and the sheers, as they are transported forward spread the heels and tauten the sheer head lashings; and for the reason, that getting in the foremast last, the sheers may be better secured and raked for getting in the bowsprit.

      The Garland, Fig. 273, if used, should be of good four-inch rope, made selvagee fashion, marling it with small stuff. It is lashed on the forward side of the mast about six-tenths from the tenon, so that the mast will hang a little heel heavy. The distance from the heel must in any event be such that the garland may not take in the partners before the heel is landed. The garland lashing is passed as in Fig. 273. After passing enough turns, dog the ends down the forward part of the mast and seize them together. The garland should be lashed on before the mast is put in the water, not only for the greater convenience, but the subsequent wetting tautens the lashings very considerably. If the small purchase is used-as in getting in the main and foremasts, its garland is placed on the mast as far above the main garland, as the small purchase block is lashed on above the main. If practicable, the lower purchase blocks are lashed to the mast and the garlands dispensed with.

      To take in the Mizzen-Mast, Fig. 271. Tow the mizzen-mast alongside with the head aft. Having overhauled down the main purchase abaft, shove the two eyes of the lower block strap through the garland and toggle it, using a small lashing to guard against slipping.

      Man the capstan and "heave around," observing that the skids and mats, or whatever has been placed to protect the ship's side from chafing, are properly adjusted. When the mast-head is up with the gunwale, "avast heaving," lash a couple of stout single blocks to the tenon, one on each side, and reeve girtlines, taking the precaution to knot the ends together to prevent unreeving. Put a couple of good straps around the mast, just above the futtock band, for pendant tackles, and bend the canting girtline, from the sheer-head to the mast, just below the bibbs; sway up again until high enough; ease the heel inboard by a jigger, coming up the belly guy, which must be set up again. Pull up on the canting line and point the mast fair for stepping,

wipe the heel dry, and white-lead the tenon and mortise, have hands on the gun-deck to keep the mast on the right slue, and carpenters on the berth-deck to attend at the step, lower away and step the mast. Sway up three pendant tackles and hook them to the straps about the masthead-the two at the side set up in the channels, and one fore-and-aft to act as a stay; set taut the tackles and wedge the mast temporarily. When nearly stepped, a stout strap and heaver may be used to get the mast on the right slue.

      Come up the purchases and take off the garlands. Cast off the bulwark lashing, man the guys, shoe and heel tackles, and transport the sheers, one leg at a time, observing to wet the decks and come up the thwartship tackle in the wake of obstructions; get them a little forward of the main partners, rake and secure them as before.

      If the sheers are high enough or can be made available by spanning the fork above the sheer-head lashing, send up the tressle-trees, &c., of each mast, before transporting them to take in the rest.

      Take the main and foremast in, in the same manner, with the additional use of the small purchase.

      Should the sheers prove too short, the fork above the lashing may be spanned by a stout rope and the upper block of the small purchase lashed to the span. If the garland takes in the partners before the mast is stepped, the heel may be rested on blocks, or stout planks, the mast steadied by the guys and the garland shifted higher. Should the sheer-legs be found too slender and to complain, a spar may be lashed across from one to the other, in the wake of the guys.

      When both purchases are employed in getting in heavy masts, a good plan, and one which obviates the necessity of heavers on the heel, is to lash the garlands, a little on each side, and not in the same right line with the axis of the mast. Then, by slacking one purchase and holding on the other, it may be slued at pleasure. The position of the small garland should be at the distance of its purchase block, from that of the large one, on the sheers, above the main, so that the falls cannot come two blocks except at the same time.

      When, in dismasting, a mast is jammed in the step, a gentle roll given to the ship will start it.

      To get in the Bowsprit, Fig. 276 A, Plate 40. Transport the sheers as far forward as the bows will permit; send a hand to the sheer head, bend a girtline to the small purchase block and light it up; unlash and shift it to the forward side of the sheer head. Pass a strap around the foremast head, to which hook the double block of a large tackle; the other block take aft and set well taut. Lash a couple of large blocks to the foremast head; middle a haw-

ser and clove-hitch it around the sheer head, reeve the ends through the blocks at the foremast head, lead them aft and set them up; take aft the forward head-guys, which, with the after ones, are to be set up, and the forward belly guys to the cat-head; hook the after-shoe and heel-tackles forward and set them taut. Rake the sheers over the bows so that the main purchase will clear the billet-head.

      The bowsprit is towed under the bows, with the head forward, the cap on, and the main garland lashed on a little over one-third its length out from the heel, or so that it will hang head heavy. The small garland, lash on just inside of the cap. Have guys or whips from eye-bolts in the cap to the cat-heads, and an eye-bolt in the heel for the bedding tackle which leads from the bitts on the gun-deck out through the bowsprit partners.

      In getting in a bowsprit in modern vessels, the thrust of the heel, owing to the necessary lead of the purchases may be so great as to push the heel inboard too soon, before it is pointed fair for placing. To diminish the thrust and get the spar on the right slue use a fore-and-aft outrigger (stunsail yard) with one end against the neck of the strap on the lower purchase block, and the other controlled by two heel tackles.

      Sway away on the main and small purchases, steadying the spar by the guys. When the heel is high enough, hook the bedding tackle. Wipe the tenon dry, and white-lead it and the mortise. Keep fast the small purchase; ease away on the main and bowse on the bedding-tackle and cat-head guys, and get the bowsprit in its place. Come up the purchases and guys, and unlash the garlands.

      The bowsprit rests on the stem head, between the knight-heads, and steps in the bowsprit partners-on the gun-deck in a frigate and on the spar-deck in a sloop-of-war. It comes inboard about one-third its length. If the cap was not on, it may be shipped by means of a small pair of sheers, stepped on the bees.

      If, by taking the forward head guys well aft, and setting them up, the support is found sufficient, the hawser at the sheer head may be dispensed with.

      To Dismantle the Sheers. Proceed now to dismantle the sheers. Take the after heel tackles aft, come up the bulwark lashing, and rouse the heels aft, easing away the forward heel tackles, the head guys and the hawser, and lower away until the sheer heads rest on the knight-heads; strip the sheer legs, cast off the sheer head lashing and get each leg aft in the gangway; unreeve the hawser from the foremast-head and send down the single blocks. Put straps on the ends of the sheer legs and hook the fore and main pendant tackles to them, having the opposite tackles set well taut. Hook to the same straps, jiggers leading in from the channels. Pull up on the

tackles, rouse out by the jiggers and lower the sheer leg overboard, taking care to have skids in the proper places to prevent chafe, or the spars taking against the dead-eyes in the channels. Or, the sheer-legs may be got down by lashing their heads separately to the lower mast, casting off the cross lashing and lowering them by means of the pendant tackles.

      In masting or dismasting with one's own resources, it is necessary to measure the lengths for slinging the masts very accurately, so as to make sure of carrying the heel clear of the upper deck, and yet avoid, if possible, top-heaviness. When the spars are short for the work (as in the case of the topmasts of a high ship), the masts must be slung so low as to make top-heaviness unavoidable. In going out, when the heel of the mast is near the upper-deck partners, tackles are put on above from each side of the upper-deck, and one strong and long one, led from below through the lower mast holes, is lashed to the heel, and well cleated each way. The tackles are tautened until, the heel being clear of the partners, they are eased away, and the mast lowered head foremast overboard, Fig. 274.

      In coming in, the mast is slung above the balancing point and hoisted with an extra tackle alongside the sheers; the purchases are then lashed low enough down, and the heel is confined to the side by the turns of a greased hawser passed through the ports; or, in a merchant ship, through the ballast-hole. When the heel is nearly up to the highest bight, deck-tackles are lashed on from all sides, which are cleated in their place. These are tautened as the mast rises, and guy the heel, when high enough, into the mast-hole.

      In handling a bowsprit with your own resources use the jibboom and spare topmast for sheer legs; or, if the fore-topmast is sent on deck, it may be used as one of the legs. The sheer head may be supported by the foretop pendants thus: Each pendant is taken through its top block at the lower mast head, thence through a top block on the upper side of each sheer head in wake of the lashing, and made fast at the foremast-head. The after ends of the pendants have the top tackles clapped on to them, led from as far aft as possible. Take the usual precautions in shoring the decks, etc. Bring the inner purchase as close in to the heel of the bowsprit as the housing permits, and the outer purchase well inside the cap. Use the spar above described to counteract the thrust in coming in. The position of the purchase blocks on the bowsprit is determined by the length of the sheer legs, which in this case would be comparatively short. The bowsprit might have to come up athwartships, when suspended, to clear the billet head. This slueing is effected by the tackle from one of the catheads; the tackle

from the opposite cathead will slue the spar fore and aft again when above the billet head, the heel tackle being previously hooked to assist in placing the bowsprit.

      A long topgallant forecastle will make it difficult to handle the bowsprit with improvised sheers alone, as they are too short to get sufficient cant and make the main purchase clear the billet head. In that case the sheers may be assisted by a topmast used as a derrick. Fig. 276 B, Plate 40, shows such a derrick, the sheers being represented as formed of two lower yards, fished.

      Vessels with long topgallant forecastles such as the "Omaha", and class, are likely to have comparatively light head booms and short bowsprits. In such cases a topmast alone, used as a derrick, might suffice to get in the bowsprit.

      A neat performance in the history of Masting on one's own resources was in the case of an English line-of-battle ship, which, having lost her own mainmast, helped herself in one operation to that of a captured frigate. Sheers were formed of the main-topmasts, whose heads were supported by guys set up to the fore-topmasts, which were rigged out through the main deck ports on the off-side. A derrick was made of the main yard, which was secured at its lower quarter to the sheer leg on the working side, the pressure at this point being relieved by an athwart-ship spar, thrusting outward, by means of a tackle led across the deck. The purchase on the upper arm of the derrick took the mast out, the frigate was dropped astern, the mast lowered until the sheer purchase "looked" well up and down, when that tackle brought it in. Fig. 275, Plate 39.

      Besides carrying duplicates of some of the important spars, vessels of war are supplied with iron fishes of various sizes. With these and the heavy planking, &c., furnished in the outfit, there is a large amount of material available for effecting repairs to the spars and masts when necessary, or for rigging jury masts and yards.

      Fig. 277, Plate 41, represents the ordinary form of rudder of men-of-war. Around the pintles, A A A, the wood is removed so as to allow the rudder to ship on the gudgeons, C C C. In all but the topmost space the wood is removed so as to leave a vacant place, as shown in the figure, but by the topmost pintle the wood is cut square, as seen in the figure at d. This is in order to admit a small piece of oak under the upper pintle after the rudder has been shipped. This piece of oak is called a wood lock (d), and is intended to prevent the rudder from unshipping. Under the second

gudgeon a strong cleat is sometimes placed, on which the pintle partly rests. This relieves the gudgeons of much strain.

      To Ship the Rudder. – First Method. Bring the rudder under the stern, hung to a scow. Bore a hole through a beam over the rudder case (i.e., the hole in the stern into which the rudder head is inserted), and drive an eye-bolt up; put a washer on and key it. In Fig. 280, a represents the key, b the washer, d the beam, F the eyebolt and E a top block. Bore a hole through the rudder head, if one is not there already, and drive an eye-bolt through and key it in the hole for the tiller. Then reeve a pendant through the top block, take it down through the rudder case and hitch it to the eye-bolt in the head of the rudder. To the thimble in the other end of the pendant hook a deck tackle. Take a hawser and make an overhand knot near the middle, reeve the hawser through the hole in the rudder H, Fig. 277, and on the side of the rudder opposite to where the overhand knot brings up make a marlinespike hitch, through which shove a toggle; make a laniard fast to this toggle long enough to reach the deck. Take the ends of the hawser forward to each gangway to act as guys; sway up, guy the rudder fair, so that the pintles are fair for entering the gudgeons, then lower away, fit the wood-lock and bolt it. Come up the purchase, unreeve the guys (hauling the toggle out by the laniard, jerking the hitch adrift and hauling the hawser through on the side of the knot), ship the tiller, reeve the wheel ropes, shackle the rudder chains, and stop up the pendants.

      The tiller of a sailing vessel is shipped in a mortise in the rudder-head. Two pieces of iron, a a, Fig. 281, are put on each side of the mortise before the rudder is shipped. The pieces of iron are prevented from coming out by the two shoulders, b b. The ends, c c, of these pieces, are put through holes in the small vertical projections, d d, and are set up with nuts, e e. These pieces, called flanges or dogs, prevent the tiller from unshipping.

      The band, f f f f, around the rudder-head, is of iron.

      Second Method. The rudder for sailing and screw ships differs in the construction of the head; that for the latter being often shaped to receive an iron yoke, Fig. 278. Should there be no beam wherein to place the eye-bolt for the top-block, a pair of sheers, or a stout spar, lashed across the rail over the rudder-hole, may be substituted.

      An improved method of securing the rudder chains, is to shackle them to the eye in the extremity of a stout iron bar projecting from the rudder as at B, Fig. 277.

      During the Exploring Expedition, the rudder-head of the "Vincennes" becoming so much decayed that the tiller was useless, stout pieces of oak were bolted to the rudder on either side, so as to project similar to B. These "out-

riggers" were connected, by means of luffs, to spars lashed on the quarters, and the vessel steered in that way.

      Since the introduction of the screw-propeller and very long ships, the effort has been made to increase the water surface of the rudder with a view to an improvement in steering. The objection to some of these inventions is that the great increase of resistance brings too much strain upon the rudder-head and tiller, rendering the former liable to be twisted off. Still, where the draft is light in comparison to the length, an increase in the breadth of the rudder, over the old pattern, is indispensable.

      The most successful design, so far, and one in which the difficulty just stated is overcome, seems to be the pattern known as the equipoise rudder, Fig. 279, Plate 41. In that figure, C E represents the after portion of the keel, D the screw, and A B the rudder, made of iron and working at one-third its breadth, on an iron spindle, or after-stern post c. Now, if the helm be put a-starboard, for example, then A C, two-thirds of the entire breadth, present the desired surface to the action of the water, but the strain on the tiller is diminished by the one-third, B C, which acts in conjunction with it, by the water acting on the surface from B to C.

      A rudder, unprovided with the usual pintles and gudgeons, whether it be equipoise or of the ordinary type, must be fitted with some arrangement for taking its weight inboard, the spindle at the heel being merely intended to steady it.

      One method of taking the weight of the rudder inboard is shown in Fig. 283, Plate 42.

      The four aftermost vertical frames support a horizontal platform, O O, and a circular forging, Q, is secured to the platform, forming a table whose upper surface is beveled, as shown in the figure.

      The diameter of the rudder-head is reduced so as to-receive upon it a forging, S, and to leave a shoulder above and below that forging. By means of this shoulder the weight of the rudder is transmitted by S to friction rollers underneath it, on a band, R, Fig. 282, so that the working of the rudder is rendered easy.

      The after part of the forging S may be formed in such a manner as to overlap the forward edge of a locking plate, V, where, by means of a locking pin, W, the rudder can be fixed at any desired angle.

      It has been found that the great area of an equipoise rudder, while adding to the maneuvering power of a vessel under steam, tends to destroy her way when tacking, causes

her to miss stays, &c. Equipoise rudders have, therefore, been designed where the fore part may be locked in its amidship position, leaving the after part alone to act in steering the ship when under sail.

      Back-Chains. It is frequently necessary for steamers to back against the helm, but in doing so the strain brought on the rudder and its fitments is immense.

      Tug-boats guard against such accidents by using back-chains. These are chain pendants which attach to the after-part of the rudder and to some point under the counter, one each side, and of such a length as to give ample support to the rudder when backing with the helm hard over.

      Instead of these chain pendants, many tugs and small steam craft have chocks bolted to the rudder-post on each side, and of such shape as to limit the motion of the rudder to an angle of 45° in either direction.

      The rigging of a ship consists of a quantity of ropes for the support of the masts, yards and booms.

      Each mast is supported from forward by stays, from aft by backstays, and sideways by shrouds. The foremast is supported in a great measure from the bowsprit, therefore the bowsprit has a number of extra stays, called bobstays. These, and such ropes as are stationary, constitute the standing rigging.

      The standing rigging of modern vessels is composed of wire rope, iron wire rope being in general use, although the substitution of steel wire, owing to its greater strength and lightness, can only be a question of time.

      Wire rope now in use in the U. S. Navy for standing rigging, is right-handed, of six strands, each strand having an untarred hemp heart, and another heart in the centre of the rope. The individual wires forming the strand are of a size (larger or smaller) corresponding to the full size of the rope.

      In the Navy, all wire rope is measured and designated by its circumference, but bridge builders, and others than seamen, often use the diameter to designate the size of wire rope.

      Wire rope is reeled for stowage or transportation on strong wooden reels. To take wire rope off a reel, cast loose the outside end, which is secured to the reel, and make it fast to a bolt in the floor or deck. Place the reel on its edges, with the rope end underneath, roll the reel along the floor to a point a little beyond the length required, then clap on a strap and tackle near the reel, leaving enough space between the strap and the secured end to measure off the required length. Haul the rope taut along the floor, place a mark close up to the secured end. Then measure off from the mark at end the number of feet and inches required. Make allowance for end enough to work either for splice or to turn up, and place within an inch of each other two strong bindings or whippings to keep the ends of wire in place when it is sawed off.

      If the wire is to be served the full length, it would be better to get it on a stretch before cutting, but if the ends are to be spliced into eyes, then with a hack-saw, kept well oiled, saw the wire in two between the whippings, secure the end of the rope to the reel and put it away.

      Should it be required to take all the wire from the reel, then the reel will be rolled as far as circumstances admit, back and forth, till all the rope is off. The rope can then be taken up and put on stretch just as it lies upon the floor without taking turns out for stretching.

      A piece of 3/4-inch iron chain, about 3 feet long, with a ring in each end, one ring sufficiently large to let the other reeve through it, is the best strap to be used in putting heavy wire rope on a stretch. Plenty of protection should be put on the rope to prevent the chain from injuring the wire. To apply the chain strap, pass a turn around the rope with one end of the strap, and pass the other end through the ring, and jamb it into place by hand. If it is to be a very heavy pull, a half-hitch can be taken, hook on to the unconfined end and heave taut.

      Wire rope, not galvanized, is best protected from weather and wear if painted with boiled linseed oil and red lead, well mixed, and filled well into the lays, wormed and parcelled with cotton sheeting, so cut and laid on that the overlapping will give two thicknesses over all the rope, then painted again and served tight and close over all. If properly done, this will keep out water for years.

      Cutting Ribbing by Draft. Having an accurate draft of the hull and spars of a ship, Fig. 284, Plate 43, the measures may be readily taken and the rigging cut and fitted so that it can be sent aloft as soon as the masts are ready to receive it. It not unfrequently happens that a gang of rigging is completed and triced up out of the way, in the rigging loft, long before the ship is ready to take it.

      Rigging drafts are usually made on an 1/8-inch scale (one-eighth inch-one foot). This scale is most convenient, because the ordinary two-foot rule can be used as well as any more complicated measure, and the drawing made on an eighth scale is of a convenient size. The largest ship will require a sheet of paper not more than 2 1/2 feet by 3 feet.

      The half beam at each mast is usually noted on the draft at the respective channels, but the location of dead-eyes seldom, and therefore the rigger must get the measurements from the vessel. As no beam draft is now furnished, an adjustable beam scale, Fig. 287, Plate 45, is employed (which is graduated to the same scale as is the draft) with a sliding rest and set screw. Another adjustable beam scale, Fig. 285, is in the form of a hollow square of metal, graduated on its four exterior sides to different fractional parts of an inch. The sliding rest for the point of the dividers may be applied

to any one of the four sides to correspond with the scale used in the draft.

      Before working on the draft scale, measure carefully the square of the mast-head just in line with the upper side of bolster. The measure of the square is used to fit the pendants, but for eyes of the lower rigging, five square of the actual girth measure is used. The mast-heads are rounded for wire rigging, iron or composition plates being let in and secured on each corner of the mast-head to round it off.

      Lower Mast-head Pendants. Should be fitted long enough to hang one foot below the futtock band, and both legs are now fitted the same length, with an iron thimble and large link in each end. Fig. 286, Plate 44. The thimble is usually spliced in as close as possible, and for a time it is neat and answers well, but when the service becomes rotten or worn, and requires repairing, the splice is liable to injury in removing the thimble. It would be better to fit the ends with a long eye, so that the thimble can be moved in repairing, and secured in place by a good. seizing. In measuring for lower mast-head pendants, find the distance from top of trestle-tree to one foot below futtock band, add one thickness of trestle-tree, and half square of mast-head, which, doubled, will be the combined length of starboard and port leg; add the half length of the round of thimble or length of eye, and a due allowance of end for splicing. Now paint worm, parcel, paint again and. serve, and double serve with spun-yarn in the place required for the thimble, splice in the thimble, tucking once whole, once two-thirds, and once one-third. Hammer the splice into a smooth taper, and get the pendant on a stretch by hooking tackles into the links; break off the wire ends close into the lays, give the pendant a good painting, worm from and parcel toward, the centre, serve with spun-yarn, and double serve from centre to a distance equal to one-half the mast-head, together with the thickness and depth of trestle-tree.

      With tarred flax parcelling head up from nearly the end of the double service to the centre, and marl on with strong marline, the hitches not more than half an inch apart, being careful to leave a space without hitches at the mark for the cross-lashing, which is to be ascertained and marked before the marling is put on. Having the two pendants spliced, served, headed up and carefully marked for the cross-lashing, let down. From the centre mark of each pendant, lay off and mark each way one half the square of the masthead. Take two pieces of wood about three inches wide and one inch thick, equal in length to one square of masthead, lay the two pendants side by side to verify the marks, then spread them apart till the pieces of wood can be placed across and from pendant to pendant, just outside the marks

where the cross-lashing is to go, allowing room to comfortably work the lashing. With a piece of strong seizing stuff with a long eye, proceed to put on a regular round seizing from pendant to pendant, being careful to keep outside of the mark, or the square will be too small to go over the mast-head. Having passed the riding turns of the lashing, secure its end. Then around the cross-lashing close up to the pendants put a good seizing of houseline, being careful to bring all parts of the cross-lashing close together, and marl the lashing together, parcel with thin stuff and woold with a strand, then with tarred flax parcelling protect the lashing, cover well the turns around the pendants and marl all down. Leave the wooden strips in till the pendants are about to be put over the mast-head.

      A link is put into the end of the pendant because it is so much easier hooked into than the thimble in the stiff wire, alone.

      The mizzen pendants being made of smaller rope than the fore and main, can be fitted in the same manner, excepting where they are fitted with a cut splice or spanned to a pair of odd shrouds, as is sometimes the case. When pendants are to be fitted in the latter way, the same rules hold good, for the odd shroud and pendants spanned together go on the mast-head first. The odd shroud is fitted straight and passes over the bolsters from side to side abaft, as if it were an after-pendant, and the span is fitted as above described for double pendants. In small vessels, and when there is no odd shroud, the mizzen pendants are fitted with a cut splice, the cut eye to be one foot longer at each end than the eye for a shroud, with good seizings at the proper places. The eyes are purposely made too large to prevent injury to the splice in opening the eye.

      To Measure for No. 1, or First Pair of Shrouds. These comprise the swifter and next shroud, or, as called by riggers, "forward leg" and "after leg," and they go over the mast-head next after the pendants and always on the starboard side.

      The beam-scale, Figs. 285 or 287, being adjusted to the mark representing the half-beam of the vessel, minus half the diameter of the mast, place it on the draft just at the upper edge of channel at the dead-eye of the first shroud. Place one point of the dividers at the top line of trestle-tree near the forward side of mast-head and the other point on the beam-scale at the mark indicating the half-beam, apply the dividers to the rule and observe the number of feet and inches it gives according to the scale on which the draft is made; this will give the length of the forward shroud, or "forward leg," of No. 1 pair, without the eye. Then proceed to measure for the next shroud or after-leg in the same manner, moving the beam-scale to the second dead-eye. There will be very little difference in the length of the two

first legs, and if any, the after leg will be a little shorter on account of the rake in the mast and the shroud being more perpendicular. Having the length of both legs of No. 1 pair of shrouds, take their sum and add five squares of the girth-measure of the mast-head, plus the diameter of the lower mast-head pendants, as the shrouds will "pile," or rise, that much on the mast-head. This will give the extreme length of No. 1 pair.

      Having the rope on a stretch, hang it, with tricing lines at short intervals to prevent sagging. Commence measuring from a mark near the strap on the end, the length of the forward leg. Then continue along to measure five square of mast-head, being careful to leave at the centre (which will be the centre of eye) a special mark, usually a long strand. Then measure and mark the after-leg, and in the same manner measure and mark all the other shrouds, not forgetting to add for the second pair of shrouds twice the diameter of a finished eye; for the third pair three times the diameter, &c., as each succeeding shroud must "pile" that much in rising above the others on the mast-head. The first pair of shrouds, or No. 1, being on stretch, measured and marked, worm it and paint from end to end with red lead and boiled oil, being particular to fill well in the lay. Over the worming parcel with new cotton sheeting. In putting on this parcelling commence from the end of each leg, working towards the centre of eye. The parcelling should be so put on that the rope will be protected with two thicknesses at every point; now paint again over the parcelling, and serve from end to end with spun yarn, commencing to serve from the centre and serving in the opposite way to which the parcelling was put on. Measure off from the centre mark each way the half eye (the half of the five square), which gives the place for the upper turn of the eye seizing. Start two feet below these eye-seizing marks, on each leg, and parcel with tarred flax canvas to the centre of eye, and serve over with roundline. Double serve the end of each shroud from the place of the quarter-seizing for its dead-eye. Now let down the shroud and saw off; bring the two ends together and break the eye around till the two eye-seizing marks come firmly together. Mark one foot below the eye-seizing on each leg, and with strong flax parcelling put on the heading, which is just the same as parcelling, always commencing below and working up to the centre on both legs so that the edge of the "heading" will overlap and form a "shingling," which it is often termed. Use the selvage edge of parcelling stuff for shingling, leaving the selvage out; this makes smooth work that will not fray out. Secure the heading in place by marline hitches, which should be on top not more than one-half inch apart, leaving a space for the eye-seizing without hitches.

      Should there be an odd shroud in the fore or main rigging, it is fitted with an eye-splice, and goes over the masthead last, the eye to be spliced one foot longer than the eye of a pair of shrouds, and seized together above the splice so as to have the same size as it would have if of a pair; the eye to be double served and headed in the same manner as all the others.

      Mizzen Rigging is fitted in the same manner as the fore and main, excepting in the case of an odd shroud, which is fitted "straight," passing over across the masthead abaft and forming one leg on each side, being spanned at the mast-head with the pendants, of which the mizzen has in this case but one on each side. In large ships the mizzen lower mast-head pendants are often fitted with four legs, in the same manner as is the fore and main.

      Sword mats are substituted for service on the swifters (forward shrouds) of lower rigging.

      Bowsprit Rigging. Bobstays are now made of iron chain shackled into the cutwater and set up with four score hearts. To find the length of bobstays, measure from the band under the bowsprit at the place prepared for the upper heart, to the bolt or link in cutwater, then find the number of feet and inches the two hearts will occupy and the drift of laniard, add together and subtract the sum from the extreme length; the remainder will be the length of the chains required for the bobstay. Care should be taken that the bobstays have the same drift of laniard, as it adds to the trimness of the head gear.

      Bowsprit Shrouds are fitted of wire and lead well down on the bows, shackled to eye-bolts and set up with three scored hearts. To find the length by draft, measure from the band on bowsprit at the place marked to the place in the bow, and from the extreme measure deduct the drift of laniard and one heart. The reason of but one heart being deducted, is that the measure of the other allows for the "carry out" of the shroud. Too much care cannot be taken in fitting the gear and securing the bowsprit, as it not only has all the head booms to support, but in a great measure the foremast with its topmast and topgallant mast, together with the main topmast and topgallant mast.

      Fore Stays are fitted with lashing eye collars and set up with laniards and four score hearts. Measure for fore stays from the after-side of foremast head, about one foot above the trestle-trees, to the place where the lower heart is to be.

      To form the collar of the stay, allow, in cutting, for twice the length of the intended collar.

      When cut, unlay one-half (three) of the strands to the mark for the crotch of the collar, keeping each set of strands together. One of the sets will contain the

heart. A heart must be laid in with the other three strands.

      Form the eye in each leg of the collar by turning back the strands and working two of them down to the crotch. The third strand of each set is spliced around the eye and the surplus end cut off.

      We then have each leg formed of five strands; each eye formed of three strands.

      The length of the collar is usually equal to the length of the mast-head, but may be reduced if necessary to keep the fore yard, when sharp up, from taking against the collar.

      Paint, worm, parcel and serve with spun-yarn, parcel again with flax, and double serve with round-line; fid out each eye and insert a strong hard-wood toggle. Get the stay on stretch by lashing the toggles to posts four or five feet apart, get a strong tackle on the end, heave it up straight and trim the splices. Paint, worm, parcel, paint again, and serve with spun-yarn from end to end, being careful to have a good piece of parcelling laid through the crotch to shed the water. Then, from four feet below the crotch, parcel with tarred flax parcelling to eyes of collar, and leather over the parcelling, serving over the ends of the leather and over the splices. Having both stays double served and leathered, place one over the other, being careful to keep the crotches fair and even. Then seize both stays together with one good heavy seizing close up to the crotch, and smaller ones at every two feet along the collars. Parcel and leather over the seizings. Double serve the ends of fore stays to eight feet above the nip around the thimble.

      Main Stays are fitted in the same manner as fore stays, excepting the double service on end, which is only from quarter seizing around thimble to end. Sometimes if the smoke-stack, when up, is near the stays, a piece of chain is shackled into the stay just over the stack. The main stays generally set up with four scored hearts, the lower heart being secured to iron straps made for the purpose, one on each side of the foremast. The iron rods or straps lead down to the berth deck, frequently passing through the bitt standards and setting up with a nut on the forward side.

      Mizzen Stays are always single, with the collars fitted and lashed, same as fore or main stays. On some vessels the end is split into two legs to admit the main trysail mast, and each leg fitted with a thimble to set up by laniard to bolts on each side of main-mast. On others the end is turned up around a thimble and set up with three score hearts to the after-side of main-mast.

      The ends of all stays turn up under the standing parts.

      The ends of all shrouds turn up inside the standing parts.

      Futtock Shrouds are made of rod iron set up with turn-buckles. The required lengths are best obtained

by actual measurement after the top is on. In small ships futtock shrouds are rattled down. Futtock shrouds are set up independently to the top rim, and not to the plates of the topmast dead-eyes. The lower ends secure to the futtock band.

      Note. – In the above measurements for shrouds it is assumed that by measuring from the place of the lower dead-eye, on the channel, enough allowance is made for turning up the shroud around the thimble of the upper dead-eye. But if the drift of the laniard added to the diameter of both dead-eyes does not allow enough shroud to turn up, extra length must be added for that purpose to each measurement taken.

      The amount allowed for turning up is six feet for the forward shroud of large rigging, a proportionately smaller amount for smaller rope. After shrouds have somewhat more turn up than forward ones, in order to bring the ends themselves parallel to the sheer.

      Upper dead-eyes are usually in line with or below the rail.

      When lower rigging has been set up for some time, or after a ship has experienced heavy weather, it will be found that the shrouds will not lie exactly above one another, but settle, the necks of the eyes working partly inside of each other. The effect is to slacken the rigging, particularly the after shrouds, which settle most, and which may require turning in again to keep the dead-eyes in line, a difficult operation with wire rope. If the allowance for piling were two-thirds of a diameter of the shrouds, instead of a whole diameter, as at present, it is believed that much of this inconvenience could be avoided, although a few of the after dead-eyes might not come quite to their places when the shrouds are first set up.

      Topmast Rigging. To measure for topmast shrouds from the scale draft, proceed on the same principle as for lower shrouds. Set the beam scale to one-half the spread of the top from the side of the mast, allowing for the rounding of the top; place the beam scale on the draft abreast of the proper dead-eye, and measure the distance with dividers from the top of the sliding rest to the top of the trestle-tree. Add for each pair the spread of the trestle-trees, and make the usual allowance for turning up from the nip of the dead-eye thimble.

      Topmast rigging is fitted in the manner known as "straight," with one eye formed out of two pairs of shrouds, which gives two "lifts" or thicknesses on the mast-head, with four shrouds on each side, making a snug and neat mast-head.^*

      It should be painted, wormed, parcelled, painted again, and served the entire length. The shrouds double served from centre of eye to three or four feet below the futtock-staff. The length of heading from centre of eye down to one foot below the eye-seizing is put on the same as for the lower rigging.

      Catharpins are of wire rope, wormed, painted, and parcelled, and double served throughout; fitted with eyes in each end, and go abaft the mast and seize together in the centre.

      The topmast-head (burton) pendants are wire rope, fitted with a shackle in one end and a link in the other; the shackle connecting to a link under the trestle-trees. Each topmast has four pendants, two forward, and two abaft the rigging. The lower ends of pendants hang six inches below the catharpin legs.

      Pendants are fitted the same as topmast rigging, without double service, except around their thimbles.

      Sword mats are substituted for double service on the swifters of topmast rigging.

      Topgallant Shrouds. The easiest way to measure for length of topgallant shrouds is to draw a figure to scale, showing the top, the position of the futtock-staff, and position and spread of cross-tree. Measure on that draft from the topgallant mast-head to the horn of the cross-tree, thence to futtock-staff and into the top, where the shroud sets up. Allow for each pair enough for a neat eye around the funnel, and ends for turning up.

      The shrouds are painted, wormed, parcelled, painted again, and served the entire length, and go over the funnel on the mast-head. They are fitted in pairs, with eyes formed like the eyes of lower rigging, and seized so as to fit snug over the funnel.

      The forward legs are double served from the centre of eye to one foot below the futtock-staff of topmast rigging; the after leg is double served from centre of eye, three feet down; then from a point one foot above cross-trees to one foot below the futtock-staff: both legs are leathered in the wake of cross-trees, and set up in the top with dead-eyes.

      Royal Shrouds, Stays and Backstays. Measure for each to where it leads and sets up, allowing enough end to turn up in the wake of the thimble.

      Fore. – Are painted, wormed, parcelled, painted again, and served the entire length, and fitted to an iron funnel or band, which has three eyes at equal distances apart, one on each side and one forward. The shroud and backstay are one piece, rove through a side eye of the band and seized around a thimble there. Double service one foot down on the shroud and backstay from centre of eye, double service on the shroud, leathered in the nip of the jack. The stay is spliced around a thimble on the forward eye of the band

double served and leathered in the nip of the flying jibboom, in the clamp on the dolphin striker, and also where it reeves through the bees on the bowsprit.

      Royal shrouds set up in the top with a purchase; stays and backstays with dead-eyes.

      Main. – Fitted and set up the same as the fore; double service and leathered at the nip of the chock in the fore-topmast trestle-trees.

      Mizzen. – Fitted and set up the same as the main; double service and leathered at the nip of the chock in the main-topmast cross-trees.

      Fore-topmast Stays. Measure from after part of topmast-head to the bees, thence to place of setting up; make allowance for turning up. They are fitted separate; single service throughout; collars the same as fore and main; double service from ten feet above the bowsprit to one foot inside of the leader under the bees; leathered over double service from four feet above the bees to eight inches inside the leader, under the bees. Set up with three-scored hearts.

      The service on the port (spring) stay is omitted in the wake of the stay-sail hanks.

      Jib Stay. Measure from after part of topmast-head to where it leads and sets up. To be fitted like fore-topmast stays, with split collars, lashing-eyes, &c.; served from four feet above the boom to the end where it sets up; double service and leathered in the nip of the clamp on the dolphin-striker, and also where it goes through the bees, leathered over the surface from four feet above to eight inches below the boom; collars of jib and topmast stays seized together below the crotch around the stays, seizings parcelled and leathered. Set up with three-scored hearts.

      Main-topmast Stays. Measure and fittings similar to fore-topmast stays; in long ships, with great distances between fore and main masts, they may be brought directly to the deck near the foremast;^* but in short ships they pass through chocks between the fore trestle-trees, and. set up on deck with three-scored hearts. Nips double served and leathered; collars seized together in the loft.

      Mizzen-topmast Stay. Measure and fittings similar to main-topmast stays, and set up in the main-top with three-scored hearts.

      Fore-topgallant Stay. Measure to where it leads and sets up, allowing for neat eye-splice around funnel. Painted, wormed, parcelled, painted again, and served the entire length; double served on the eye around the funnel, and from twelve feet above to one foot below the jib-boom; also in the wake of the nip of the clamp on the dolphin-

striker, and where it reeves through the bees, or leader under the bees. All nips to be leathered. Stay set up with dead-eyes.

      Main-topgallant Stay. Measure and fit like the fore, and set up with dead-eyes in the fore-top. Double served and leathered at the hole in the fore-cap through which it leads, also leathered about three feet below the crotch of the eye-splice.

      Mizzen-topgallant Stay. Measure and fit as above. Served, leathered, and led through a hole in the main-cap and set up in the main-top.

      Flying-Jib Stay. Measure and fit with an eye-splice, similar to topgallant stay. Double served; served and leathered three feet below the crotch of splice, in all other respects fitted like the jib stays. Set up with dead-eyes.

      Jib Guys are of wire rope, painted, wormed, parcelled, painted again, and served the entire length; double served and leathered in the wake of whiskers, over which they fit with horseshoe cringles; outer ends shackle to a band on the boom end; set up to the bows, or cat-head, with three-scored hearts.

      Flying-Jib Guys are of wire rope, fitted, set up to the bows, or cat-head, with three-scored hearts, and connected with the boom, same as jib guys; reeve through thimbles in a strap out on the whisker yard-arms. Double served and leathered in the nip of the thimbles.

      Whisker-Jumpers are of wire rope; painted, wormed, parcelled, painted again, and served throughout; fitted with an eye-splice, double served and leathered, to fit over the whisker-boom end; the inner end leathered in the nip, and set up on its own part through a bull's eye connected to a bolt on the cut-water.

      Back Ropes are fitted of hemp, served throughout, hooked or shackled to the dolphin-striker, and set up at the bows with three-scored hearts.

      Jib Martingale-Stay is of wire rope, wormed, parcelled, and served the same as guys. Fitted with shackles and thimbles in each end, with double service around the thimbles. Shackles to the dolphin striker and to the band on jib-boom.

      Flying-Jib Martingale-Stay. Fitted the same as the jib martingale, of wire; double served around the thimbles in the outer in the wake of the sheave on the dolphin-striker, and where it reeves through the bees, or leader. Sets up with dead-eyes.

      Fore and Main Topmast Backstays. Fitted and measured off the same as the after-shrouds of the fore and main rigging.

      Mizzen-Topmast Backstays are fitted with horseshoe eyes, or, properly speaking, a span. Measured like the fore and main.

      Fore, Main, and Mizzen Topgallant Backstays are painted, wormed, parcelled, painted again, and served throughout. Fitted with spliced eyes, which are double served, without outside parcelling. Measured from the funnel to the place of setting up in the channels, with allowance for the eye and the usual allowance for turning up.

      For the rules for finding size of shrouds, see Appendix C.

      Boat-Davit Topping Lifts, Spans and Guys, are of wire rope, and served throughout. Spans to which topping-lift pendants are attached are leathered in the middle.

      Dead-Eyes. The dead-eye now used in the Navy is shown in Fig. 288. Plate 45.

      The end of the shroud passes around a heavy iron thimble, which is confined by a pin to the lugs of the iron strap of the upper dead-eye.

      Dead-eyes are made with one hole without a score on the inboard face, the edge being left square so as to present a solid shoulder to the knot of the laniard.

      The shroud being passed around the thimble is secured by five seizings-throat, quarter, middle, upper and end seizing.

      The two lower turns of the throat seizing are racking turns, over these come riding turns. The seizing is crossed and hitched in the upper part.

      The quarter, middle and upper seizings are riding seizings.

      The end seizing is flat, crossed and hitched, and holds into place the canvas cap placed over the ends of all standing rigging.

      Lower dead-eyes connect with the chain plates by bolts, so as to be readily unshipped. The bolts are fitted with forelocks.

      In setting up stays and some other portions of the standing rigging, scored hearts are used instead of deadeyes. These hearts have iron straps, and the upper ones are supplied with iron thimbles similar to those around which a shroud is taken. Fig. 289, Plate 45.

      Care must be taken in turning the ends of shrouds or stays around their thimbles that it is done properly, as, in the event of a change becoming necessary, it is difficult to get the old nip out of the wire.

      All wire rigging in the Navy sets up with hemp laniards, which impart all the "give" necessary.

      Topmast rigging of fore and aft vessels may be set up on end.

      For turning in old-fashioned dead-eye, see Appendix C.

      The Splicing Bench, Fig. 290, Plate 46. For convenience in handling wire rope, some rigging lofts are supplied with splicing benches, which are large tables of hard wood, plated with iron on the top and sides.

      The top of the bench is pierced with holes, into which may be set steel standards or "normans," by which the rope is steadied on a stretch. Similar holes are made in the sides of the table to receive smaller pins.

      In splicing, for instance, a link and thimble into a large wire rope, the rope itself is steadied between two normans at opposite ends of the bench. A hook, fitted with a ring which slips over the norman head, is hooked into the link of the thimble around which the rope is to be spliced.

      When a strand has been stuck once, a small chain strap, Fig. 291, Plate 46, with a ring in the chain end and tailed with manilla rope, is clapped on to the strand. The strap leads off to the side of the bench in the direction to be taken by the strand. The rope end of the strap is there taken around one of the projecting pins and hove upon, by converting the pin into a Spanish windlass.

      A like purchase is used on every strand after sticking, varying only the lead of the strap. As the sides and top of the bench are pierced with suitable holes, the lead of the strap can be changed in a moment by shifting the position of the pin used.

      In Fig. 290, some strands are omitted to avoid confusion.

      A turning in machine for wire rope, Fig. 292, Plate 47, is supplied in rigging lofts and aboard ships to shape wire rope when turning in thimbles, or wherever it is required to make a short nip.

      In splicing wire rope proceed as with hemp, sticking once whole, once two-thirds, and once one-third; get it on a good stretch and break off the wires close to the rope by working them quickly backwards and forwards.

      In splicing an eye with more than three strands, the second left-hand strand is tucked from right to left under the first convenient strand.

      Take the precaution when the marlinespike is entered under the strands where you wish to put in the first tuck, to beat the strands on either side of the spike with a hammer, so as to keep them open until the strand is entered.

      To splice a thimble in wire rope. Red lead, parcel and serve the rope in wake of the thimble. Break the rope around the thimble, stop the parts together, pass seizings around the rope and through the thimble to hold the latter in place. Then open out and splice.

      Besides the marlinespike; pincers, files, cold chisels and saws are useful in the manipulation of wire rope.

      Metallic Splices. A new method of splicing wire rope is being introduced by which the end of the wire rope is inserted into a metallic socket and there secured by pouring a strong fusible metal around it, filling all the spaces in and around the rope, and forming a solid and firmly united structure.

      The sockets may be terminated by any kind of device commonly used in connection with wire rope. A round-eye socket is used to replace the eye-splice around a thimble, and similarly sockets with bull's-eyes, sister-hooks, or deadeyes are made for use in connection with this process of splicing.

      In the figure is shown a longitudinal section of a round eye socket, showing an arrangement of inside notches into which the filling metal sets, increasing the strength and safety of the splice.

      This method of splicing has been favorably reported upon, the results of tests showing that the patent splice is stronger than the common splice, and stronger than the rope itself; also that it is durable, more quickly and economically made, and that it presents a neater appearance.

      To make the Metallic Splice.

      First, Measure the depth of socket and cut the same length from the hemp heart of the rope.

      Second, Have a sufficient quantity of filling metal being melted.

      Third, Insert the end of rope into the socket, and hold it in a horizontal position over a strong heat until a piece of the filling metal will melt when held on the upper side of socket, and until the rope becomes too hot for the hand at three inches distance from the socket. Have the filling metal hot enough to ignite a shaving or piece of paper when brought in contact with it.

      Fourth, Place the splice with the rope inserted in an upright position and pour the socket full, and let it remain in position until cool, when it is ready for use.

      The Kind of Filling to Use. Pure tin, or a compound of half lead and half tin, or the latter compound with two per cent. of antimony added.

      The following tests of the metallic splice were made at the Watertown Arsenal, August 22, 1881:

      The rope was broken in every case and the splices were uninjured.

      When a ship is taken in hand to be rigged, her lower masts are standing, temporarily or permanently wedged, and with girtlines on each side of the mast-heads. The bowsprit is in place, as are also the lower dead-eyes for the lower rigging. Hearts on the bowsprit and shackles on the bows may also be supposed in place before the riggers begin work.

      We will rig the bowsprit first, as the staying of the fore-mast depends upon it, and would otherwise be delayed.

      The Gammoning of the bowsprit in modern vessels consists of one or two iron straps as shown in Figs. 293 and 294, setting up with nuts and screws. It serves to keep the bowsprit in place, and should be set up before the ship is turned over to the riggers.

      Secure the heads of two small spars together in a lashing hung from the bowsprit-end, the heels resting on the bows, where convenient, and seized to prevent slipping. Lay boards across from one boom to the other as a platform for the men to stand on.

      The Bobstays are placed first, shackling to the cutwater, and with laniards from hearts in their outboard ends to similar hearts under the bowsprit. There are two, or three, bobstays fitted; if three, they are termed inner, middle, and cap bobstays.

      Bowsprit-Shrouds. Shackle the bowsprit-shrouds one on each side to eye-bolts, well down on the bows. The hearts in their outboard ends set up with laniards to similar hearts on either side of the bowsprit near the cap.

      Now set up the bowsprit-shrouds and bobstays. Both may be set up by using luff upon luff on each end of the laniard, as in Fig. 301, racking every turn after it has been hove taut, and finally seizing down the ends.

      This is termed "setting up on a bight," and the object is to keep the hearts from slueing. Or, secure one end of the laniard and set up on the other, one turn at a time, by means of stout luffs hooked into a strap on the laniard and into another strap on the standing part of the bobstay or shroud. Fig. 302.

      Laniards for wire rigging are of the same size as

the rigging itself; for hemp rigging as used formerly, laniards were one-half the size of the corresponding shroud, stay, &c.

      Laniards are four-stranded hemp. It is considered better to clap straps on the laniard when setting up than to turn in catspaws, either with or without toggles thrust in them, as the strap does less damage to the laniard and does not nip it out of shape. All straps should be smaller than the rope around which they are taken, to insure a good hold.

      Rigging-in Bowsprit. When a vessel is fitted as a ram, the bowsprit and jib-boom must be so arranged as to be readily gotten out of the way in clearing ship for action. For this purpose the bowsprit is either fitted to rig in, or to be lifted clear of the bows.

      Fig. 295 shows the general arrangement of a rigging-in bowsprit. The spar is rectangular in section, and projects horizontally; its rigging is simplified as much as possible. The bobstay and fore-topmast stays go to the cap or to a strap just inside the cap; the forestays set up inside the rail, and the bees are dispensed with. The bowsprit runs in on the forecastle, as shown in the figure, being held in position when rigged out by a fid forward of the heel bitts, temporary gammoning and a boom-iron (fitted with interior rollers) at the bows. The heel of the jib-boom secures in a clamp above the bowsprit-iron, Fig. 296.

      Lifting Bowsprit. Where there is no pivot-gun on the topgallant forecastle, the bowsprit of ram-bowed vessels may be fitted to lift inboard, this plan being suggested by Admiral Porter.

      Fig. 297 shows the general arrangement of such a bowsprit; Fig. 298, the process of lifting; Fig. 299, a section of the bowsprit and plunger, and Fig. 300, the hinge, &c.

      The bowsprit proper is of iron, and in the general detail of its form, stiffness, &c., is similar to the iron lower masts previously described. It is hinged just outside the rail at n, and secured when in place by the screws o, o. The bowsprit cap has secured to it on each side the ends of a heavy bail, g, large enough and with a motion sufficient to pass around the bowsprit-cap from the upper to the under side of the bowsprit.

      The plunger is an iron cylinder inside the bowsprit, made up of plates, secured with the usual stiffeners of angle-iron, and equal in length to the inboard end of the bowsprit. It is rigged out by means of a heel tackle, m, and sheave, Fig. 297, so as to project, inside the bowsprit, about half its length beyond the rail. It slides in and out on bearings formed by the inner surfaces of the bowsprit stiffeners.

      Its purpose is to strengthen the bowsprit in wake of the hinge n.

      To lift the bowsprit a stout purchase is hooked to the

bail on the cap, upper block lashed to the foremast head below the lower cap.

      A derrick, a, is raised on the forecastle by means of a tackle, c, from the fore stay. The heel of the derrick pivots in a shoe, which travels on a fore and aft guide track and is fitted with stout fore and aft tackles, f f. A derrick head purchase, b, has its upper block on the derrick, lower block hooked to an eye, s, on the bowsprit just abaft the hinge. The derrick-head has jaws like those on the inner end of a gaff.

      Having rigged in the plunger by means of a tackle, h, hooked to its heel, slacking the heel rope, m, the clamps at the bowsprit hinge are come up, and the head of the bowsprit triced up to the position 2, Fig. 298. Here the bail is nearly fore and aft, and about to swing over the end of the bowsprit. The head of the derrick, a, by means of its jaws, assists in supporting the bowsprit until it reaches the position 3, tending the derrick-head purchase. From 3 to 4 the heel of the derrick is shifted forward by the shoe tackles from d to d'. Here the bail and pendant tackle, having shifted around to the under side of the bowsprit, take up the weight again and land the bowsprit in position 5, Fig. 298.

      Lower Masts. Proceed now to rig the lower masts, and send up first the trestle-trees, as follows:

      Trestle-trees. The mast-head girtlines should be stout enough to send up the trestle-trees; if not, send up heavy whips on each side, and lash their blocks at the lower mast-head, over the tenon or just below it. The men required to work aloft are sent up by the girtlines.

      Place the trestle-trees on deck, forward of the mast, Fig. 307, and take out the after chock, as the forward one, by having to support the heel of the topmast, is more securely bolted and not intended to be removed. Hitch the ends of the whips to the forward ends of the trestle-trees, and stop down on the top side, along to the after ends. Bend on a guy from forward, sway aloft, and as the after ends of the trestle-trees rise above the bibbs, cut the stops and work them into their places. Send up the after chock and bolt it.

      Whole Tops are sent aloft with the two girtlines used in sending up the trestle-trees, and a good-sized single or double tackle, hooked to a strap abaft the mast and directly between the girtlines, as in Fig. 308.

      Place the top on the deck abaft the mast, with the forward part uppermost. Overhaul down the girtlines and tackle, pass the ends of the former underneath the rim and make them fast to their own parts, around the after-part of the top, stopping them out to each girtline-hole, as in Fig. 308. Hook the lower block of the mast-head tackle to a stout strap around the after-part (to which a guy is also attached, leading aft), and secure the standing parts of the

tackle and girtlines to the pigeon-hole by means of a squilgee-toggle, over which the bights are laid. Bend on a tripping-line to the toggle (which should be greased), man the tackle and girtlines and sway away, pulling up steadily on all. When the forward rim comes up to the block, jerk on the tripping-line (which disconnects the parts and permits the girtlines to go out to the side, and lead off fair); sway on the tackle until the lubbers-hole is clear of the mast-head, and lower away by means of the girtlines, sending the top aft or forward with the tackle and guy as need be. The cross-trees are either secured to the top before sending it aloft, or sent up by means of the girtlines first.

      Half Tops. The half tops are placed on deck with the outer rims uppermost, on their respective sides of the deck. Pass a strap or lashing around the centre of each, steadying it in its place by a small lashing through one of the futtock holes. Overhaul down the whips used in sending up the trestle-trees, and bend each to the strap around the half top of its respective side. Sway the halves up close to the blocks, and let them hang there until the cross-trees are sent aloft and bolted in their places. Then lower the halves down and secure them; sway up the upper cross-trees and bolt and confine the whole with iron bands. Fig. 309.

      Now send up and place the bolsters, which are made of soft wood and covered with three or four thicknesses of tarred parcelling, and then get over the lower pendants, which are swayed up by the girtlines. If the mast needs support while the rigging is being sent aloft, the pendant tackles may now be hooked and hauled taut, but they are dispensed with, if possible, as being very much in the way.

      Lower Rigging. As the routine of rigging is nearly identical on all the masts, the method for the fore will answer for a description of the others.

      In the merchant service, as soon as the lower pendants are over, the lower mast is steadied by the pendant tackles, the topmast is pointed about four or five feet above the lower mast-head, and to it are attached the girtlines for the shrouds, after the manner of a derrick. Navy-yard riggers proceed as follows:

      To Send up the Shrouds. In heavy ships, two girtlines will be required to support the weight of the shroud; the block of the main girtline being toggled to the midship girtline-hole in the top; the second, or "short" girtline, being at the mast-head tenon and worked in the top. Send hands aloft with marline-spikes, tar, slush, commander,^* &c.

      Now proceed to get the shrouds up, and over, in the

order of their succession, Fig. 310. Knot the ends of the main girtline together, and fit a toggle in one part, just above. Thrust this between the two parts of the first pair of starboard-forward shrouds, from out, in, somewhat more than the length of the mast-head below the eye-seizing, and put a stop around both parts to retain the toggle in its place. Stop the girtline along the shroud towards the eye, and at the crown, and sway aloft. When as high as the top, bend on the short mast-head girtline just below the eye-seizing, taking the end from in, out, and stop it as in the other case. Cut the lower girtline adrift, as the shroud comes up, and steady it to the hand of the man aloft, who will bear the eye over the mast-head, and cast off the upper girtline. Place it fair and beat it down with the wooden commander, being careful to carry the shroud well aft, as the angular action of the strain, in setting up, has a constant tendency to bring it forward.^*

      Send up the port forward pair in the same manner. We might now rouse the legs of the shrouds well down amidships, i.e. in a line parallel with the mast, to give the eyes, a good on the bolsters, and set up all four legs at the same time, with the pendant tackles, to ensure getting the eyes well down, in place. But this is seldom done, and we proceed, as a rule, to get over the other pairs of shrouds in their proper order without stopping to set up. It is well to remember that too much care cannot be taken to beat the eyes well down in their places at once, and in this connection attention may be called again to the effect of the eyes settling down at the mast-head, and the means suggested in the previous chapter for avoiding slack after shrouds.

      To Send up the Fore-and-aft Stays. All the shrouds having been got over, shift the girtlines from the top up to the mast-head, and lash them to the sides and well aft. Dip them down through the lubber's hole, and bend the starboard one to the fore-stays below the crotch, stopping it to the starboard legs; bend the port girtline on in the same manner to the port legs, and sway aloft, cutting the seizings as the legs reach the top, Fig. 312. Use a third girtline overhauled down forward of the top, and bent to the stays below the crotch, to assist in raising the stays. Pass the collar-lashings (one end of each lashing is spliced into one of the eyes of its stay), and either rest the collars on the lower rigging or on a heavy cleat sometimes placed for the purpose on the after side of the mast. The stays are now seized around the thimbles of their upper hearts, if this has not been done in the rigging loft; the

lower hearts should be found in their places shackled to the fore-stay straps on the bowsprit. These straps are iron bands passing around under the bowsprit; one end of the strap has an eye for the heart, and the other an eye for the forelock which secures it. Reeve off the stay laniards.

      On the Standing of Masts. Experiment proves that by raking masts forward, in a vessel of ordinary form, we increase the tendency to pitch, besides increasing the difficulty of trimming the yards on account of their confinement when by the wind. The vessel is given an increased readiness to wear, but with a corresponding indisposition for coming to, and an increased need of lee helm to keep her to the wind. In scudding, this disposition to fall off increases the danger of being brought by the lee.

      When masts are stayed perpendicular to the keel, the wind acts in a horizontal direction on the sails, and the objectionable features of the preceding plan are avoided.

      Finally, when masts rake aft, there is an increase in the after sail of the ship, a disposition to approach rather than recede from the wind, the tendency to pitch is obviated, and the difficulties of bracing due to forward staying are avoided.

      The general custom is to stay the foremast plumb, or with a rake aft varying from 1/4 to 1 inch to the foot, the mainmast raking 1 1/4 inches to the foot, and the mizzen 1 1/2 inches to the foot.

      Staying the Foremast. The foremast is stayed by means of a double purchase leading forward to the bowsprit, and two pendant tackles hooked to the forward legs of the pendants, the after pendant tackles being set up to eye-bolts well aft. Fig. 313.

      With these purchases and the wedges eased up, the mast can be stayed either plumb or with a slight rake, as required. The amount of rake, if any, is determined by the constructor, and a plumb-line is made to plumb the deck at a distance from the after-part of the mast equal to the amount of the rake for the length of the plumb-line used. If the line is hung from the mast-head, seventy feet from the deck, a rake of half a inch to the foot should cause it to plumb the deck thirty-five inches from the after-part of the mast, &c. Lateral staying is effected by measurement with a small line, secured at the centre of the after-part of the mast-head and carried to the water-ways on either side in line with the after-part of the mast. Masts may also be stayed by the use of battens, as explained in Appendix D. Buckling a lower mast and getting it out of a vertical plane are by no means uncommon, and, in the absence of a practised eye, the suggestions in the Appendix will be found of value if at any time the rake of a lower mast requires altering. In

such a case the preparations above described for staying must be made and the wedges knocked out.

      The mast being in the right position, belay and rack the falls, put in the wedges for a full due; and put on the mast coat, which is used to keep the water from rotting the mast at the partners. It is made of heavy canvas and painted, and covers the heads of the wedges and the mast up to eighteen inches above the deck.

      To set up the Lower Stays, Fig. 313. At a distance eight or ten feet up the stay clap on one block of a "stay luff" (double purchase), having canvas underneath to avoid chafe, and hook the other block into a strap on the stay laniard. Into the fall of the stay luff hook the lower block of a pendant tackle, and having got the stays taut, rack the laniards and proceed to set up the shrouds.

      To set up the Shrouds. The laniards are fitted in the rigging-loft, having a laniard knot (a Mathew Walker knot showing two or three parts) cast into one end. This knot rests against the unscored hole in the upper deadeye, which is forward in the starboard shrouds and aft in the port shrouds. Reeve off the laniards through the upper and lower dead-eyes, the hauling end always coming up from the lower dead-eye.

      Place canvas on the shroud about half-way up to avoid chafe, and tail the upper block of a rigging luff (gun tackle purchase) over it. Hook the lower block of the luff to a strap on the end of the laniard, and lead the fall of the luff up to the pendant tackles as in Fig. 315. The luff tails should be dogged on long so as not to nip the shroud.

      Set up all the shrouds in this manner, a pair on each side at a time, racking the laniards. The rigging is left standing in this condition as long as circumstances may permit, to give it a chance of settling in its place, when, with the same purchases used before, the stays and then the shrouds are set up for a full due. The final setting up should not be given, if avoidable, during very wet or cold weather.

      The rigging being set up for a full due, rack the laniards, seize on the sheer poles with a cross seizing to keep the dead-eyes from slueing (on account of the tendency to unlay in the shrouds), having a strip of tarred canvas or leather underneath to prevent chafe. Secure the ends of the laniards by hitching them around the strap of the upper dead-eye thimble above the sheer pole, as in Fig. 318, bringing the end down inside the other parts and securing it with three seizings. Remove the racking from the laniard to bring an equal strain on all parts. Finally, send down the rigging luffs.

      In setting up the stays temporarily, one end of the laniard is spliced around the upper heart; take two or three turns through both hearts, set up and rack the laniard. When setting up for a full due, reeve off the remaining

turns, set taut. cut the rackings and set up. Rack again with stout rackings; come up the tackles and pass riding turns of the laniard, heaving each turn taut in succession. Put several good seizings on the upper turns of the laniard, the end of the laniard being stopped in between the turns out of sight. The rackings are removed and only the seizings remain.

      Fig. 317 shows a proposed form of dead-eye of metal. It is similar to the modern dead-eye of the British service.

      Remarks on the tension given to rigging. It is of more value to have a moderate and equal strain on each shroud, rather than a great strain upon all the shrouds.

      Much of the trouble experienced in former days with hemp lower rigging, by reason of stretching, is obviated by our present use of wire rope. But in placing the eyes of the shrouds over the mast-head, the permanent position of the eye may be lost sight of in the endeavor to complete the operation in as short a time as possible. The consequence is that the eyes of the rigging keep shifting their position on the mast-head for many months afterwards, producing slack rigging. It was suggested, after getting up the first pair of shrouds, to set up each two pairs separately at the time they are placed over, but this is seldom done. On the other hand, the beating down of the eye upon the mast-head should be carefully attended to, to insure a permanent and solid bearing.

      With regard to the stays, particularly when the after-parts of the collars are not rested on supporting chocks, any settling of the eyes of the rigging causes the stay to settle also, but the slack shroud is much more likely to receive attention than the stay. The final result is a buckling of the mast at the partners, or else an attempt is made to overcome the increased rake by setting up the topmast stay, since the rake will be more apparent at the height of the topmast-head than at the lower mast-head. The consequence of hauling forward the head of the topmast, with. a comparatively slack lower stay, is to strain the head of the lower mast, owing to the leverage of the heel of the topmast and the play in the lower cap. Some officers will recollect at least one sloop-of-war in which the lower masthead was sprung in this way. The conclusion is, that no setting up even of the two after shrouds should be undertaken without an examination of the lower stay, which will probably be found to require a pull even more than the rigging.

      A serious evil arises from setting up rigging too taut, which is particularly noticeable in small vessels.

      Let the shrouds of a schooner be pulled up as taut as harpstrings, then the liability is that when she goes to sea she will lose her masts; for when she rolls, the shrouds, which we will further suppose to be half worn, and with

little give, keep the mast-head to windward, while the tendency of the rest of the spar is to buckle to leeward, and this is particularly the case when reefed down.

      To Rattle Down. Draw a line parallel to that of the vessel's sheer across the shroud-legs on both sides through the points where it is intended to seize on the lower ratlines, so that the latter may correspond with the line of the sheer-poles. If these marks are continued up to the trestle-trees at the proper distance (fourteen inches) apart, the work of rattling down can be carried on in several parts of the rigging at once, without referring constantly to the measuring stick.

      Hook or shackle the futtock-shrouds^* to the plates in the top and to the futtock band, and set them up, observing to have the points of the hooks inboard, so that bights of rope from aloft shall not catch over them. Girt or swifter the shrouds in by securing a piece of ratline stuff to the forward shroud, take it aft and around the next shroud and haul as taut as possible, drawing the two shrouds together. Repeat the operation with the next shroud, and so on to the after shroud, girting all in together, nippering each turn with a hitch. Place three or four swiftering lines in the rigging at equal distances apart. Lash oars or spars athwart the rigging, about four feet apart, for the men to stand on while at work.

      The ratlines, Fig. 319, are usually of eighteen-thread stuff, fitted with a small spliced eye, thrust once and a half. This eye is seized on to the first shroud with marline, Figs. 320-321, or with a rope-yarn, twisted up and rubbed smooth, placing each ratline fourteen inches from the preceding one. A clove hitch is then formed outside around the next leg, put on so that the crossing of the hitch will lie with the lay of the rope, and the ratline hove taut, with a marline-spike. In this manner it is made to reach the last shroud, and then seized on as at the commencement; every fifth or sheer ratline being extended to the swifters and after shrouds, which, with these exceptions, are omitted when there is any great spread between the swifter and shroud next abaft, or between the after shroud and the one next forward of it.

      The eye-seizing of the ratline must be passed so that the eye will lie in a horizontal plane, and with the strand first tucked uppermost (if the other part of the splice were uppermost it would form a pocket for water). Having spliced in the marline, pass it around the shroud through the eye of the ratline, back around the shroud, and so on as in Figs.

320 and 321. In cutting a ratline, say starboard side, the stuff being thoroughfooted and stretched, take one end of the coil and carry it into the rigging at the height for the ratline. Hitch it to the after shroud, keeping end enough to reach to the forward one, clove-hitching loosely around each shroud from aft forward. If you have not end enough, render more through the loose hitches. When the forward shroud or swifter is reached, form the eye in the end of the ratline and seize it on, then work back toward the after shroud, tautening the clove-hitches. When the after-shroud is reached, you can mark the exact place for the after-eye, and cut the ratline at the proper place without waste. If in the port rigging, proceed in the same way, except that the temporary hitches are put on from forward aft, as riggers generally work from right to left when seizing on and hitching the ratline for a full due.

      If the eye has been badly measured, and the ratline is just too long to be seized on, but not long enough to allow for turning in a new eye, heave turns in it with the lay of the stuff until shortened up, or if it is too short, a few turns may similarly be hove out. This is called an Irish splice.

      Now come up the girts employed in swiftering in the shrouds, which tautens the rigging. After which, square any shroud ends which may have required turning in afresh, capping the ends. Send down the spars and blacken down.

      In sparring down rigging the forward ends should be square with each other, the spare ends aft. In rigging of nine shrouds one man should clap on four ratlines in an hour.

      The lower ratlines as far up as the ends of the shrouds, are now made of rod iron, to prevent getting out of shape when the rigging is manned previously to laying aloft.

      The description of rattling down is given here as in its natural order under the head of lower rigging; but instead of rattling down at this stage of the work, riggers usually fit a few temporary ratlines for their own use in getting up and down from aloft, and postpone fitting the regular ratlines until after all the rigging, masts and yards are in place.

      Topmasts. We suppose the ship to be in the stream, to show, while rigging, the methods adopted for getting the various spars on board.

      Tow the topmast alongside with the head forward,^* and parbuckle it on board. Then secure a large bull's-eye to the hounds on each side, in the same plane with the lower sheave hole; hitch the end of a hawser at the lower mast-

head, above the eyes of, the rigging, leading through the hole in the trestle-trees, and reeve the other end through one of the bull's-eyes on the topmast and the sheave-Hole; thence up through the opposite bull's-eye, and a block lashed at the mast-head, through the lubber's-hole, as in Fig. 322, Plate 57, leading it to the deck, and clapping on a pendant-tackle, or take the hawser to the capstan. With this purchase, sway the mast up and down the lowermast.^* Should the topmast prove too long, the head must be swayed up outside the top rim; then open the deck-scuttle, and lower the mast, until clear of the top rim; sway it up, and point it through the trestle-trees and round-hole of lower cap. The latter is sent up "before all," with the girtlines, immediately after rigging the lowermast, by bending them on through the round-hole, and stopping them along to the after-part, Fig. 323, observing to keep the bolts uppermost, so that they do not come in contact with the top rim, &c., in the cap's passage aloft. When in the top, place it right side up over the square hole in the trestle-trees fair for pointing the topmast.

      Now pass a stout strap through the fid-hole of the topmast, to which hook both the pendant-tackles; take off the bull's-eyes at the hounds and mast-head, unreeve the hawser, and prepare for shipping the CAP, which is done as follows:

      To Ship the Lower Cap, Fig. 324. The topmast being pointed through the round hole of the cap, slue the cap as nearly fore and aft as the doublings of the mast will admit, with the square hole aft. Pass a secure lashing through the cap eye-bolts and over the topmast-head, and give the lashing as much drift as possible, for which purpose the head of the topmast should be several feet above the upper part of the cap. Now sway up on the pendant tackles until clear of the tenon of the lower mast, then slue the cap around, as it hangs in the lashing, until its square hole is fair with the tenon. If the lashing has not been given drift enough to permit of slueing the cap fair, the topmast itself must be slued by means of a long heaver thrust in the fid-hole and worked by guys from its ends. This ought not to be necessary. Send up the capshore (with a laniard attached, to secure it aloft) and lower away, beating down the cap into place, and tacking over a piece of sheet-lead as a protection from the weather.

      To send up the Topmast Cross-Trees. Fig. 325, Plate 58. Cast off the lashings and sway the topmast-head a few feet above the cap. Lash a couple of stout burton-blocks to the tenon, send the falls down abaft for the cross-trees (placed on deck well abaft the mast). Secure the lower blocks to the after ends of the trestle-

trees on the upper side, and stop the standing parts along the forward ends, in the same manner as that resorted to in sending up the lower trestle-trees; having a guy from the mainmast-head (if the fore-topmast cross-trees), to keep them clear of the top in going aloft. Sway up on the burtons, bear off, cut the stops as necessary, and land them on the lower cap, where they should be securely lashed, having the forward part inclined upward, with the chock resting against the topmast. Cast off the burtons, remove the blocks from the tenon or-if girtlines are used to get the cross-trees aloft (as is sometimes done)-shift them at once to the after-horns, ready for the rigging; lower away on the pendant-tackles, until the cross-trees come fair over the mast-head, cutting them forward, or aft, as may be necessary.

      To Rig Topmast. Now sway up on the pendant-tackles, and lodge the cross-trees on the hounds of the topmast, prying up the after-end, and beating them down in their places. Hook the top-blocks in the lower cap and reeve the top-pendants, by passing each pointed end through its respective block, and sheave in the heel of the topmast, and clinching it to the eye-bolts, then hook the top-tackles to straps on the other ends, and remove the fid-strap and pendant-tackles used in pointing the topmast. Send up and place the composition funnel (square) over the topmast, its lower edge resting on the trestle-trees and fitted with flanges to receive the bolsters, which are well protected with tarred parcelling. The gin-bar, if not sent up with the cross-trees must now be placed. It consists of a stout flat bar of iron placed across the top-mast and trestle-trees between the doublings of the mast, with links for the gin-blocks.

      Send up next the burton pendants which shackle to bolts in the under side of the trestle-trees. Using girtlines from each after-horn of the cross-trees, and an eye girtline from the topmast tenon, proceed to get up the shrouds and stays in the following order, after the manner employed in getting up lower rigging, except that two pair, starboard and port shrouds, come up together.

      First. Starboard and port shrouds, in pairs.
Second. Backstays.
Third. Fore-and-aft-stays and jib-stay, in one, the latter uppermost.

      The ends of these shrouds and stays are allowed to hang down outside the top in their proper directions, on each side, forward, or aft as the case may be.

      To Send up the Topmast Cap, Fig. 326. Shift the girtlines from the cross-trees to the topmast-head, lashing the blocks below the tenon; send down the ends for the topmast-cap, which is sent up from forward with the after-part uppermost, the ends of the girtlines hitched to

the forward eye-bolts, and stopped down toward the after-part of the cap, similar to the mode of sending up lower trestle-trees. It is slipped into place on the tenon of the topmast-head by the men aloft, cutting the stops, as necessary.

      The topmast cap may be shipped, with the assistance of the topgallant-mast, in a similar way to that followed in placing the lower cap, but the method given is much the easiest.

      If the topmast is fidded, and topgallant-mast is not aloft, riggers frequently handle the topmast-cap as follows, particularly in stripping ship. A suitable small spar (studding-sail yard) is pointed through the round hole of the cap and the cap is securely lashed to the spar. The spar is controlled by two whips whose blocks are lashed to the masthead below the cap. The whip ends secure to the spar, one near its heel and the other a little below the cap and not in the same vertical plane as the first whip. By means of these whips the spar (and cap) can be lifted and slued as required.

      Reeve the topmast-stays through the bees in the bowsprit, turn them around the thimbles of their hearts and clap luffs on them to steady the mast when fidding; reeve off also the laniards of the backstays, and tend the stays and backstays while the mast is being swayed aloft by the top-tackles and fidded. The topmast being fidded, reeve off the laniards of the topmast rigging and prepare to set up.

      To Set up Topmast Rigging. Hook the lower blocks of a rigging luff to a strap on the laniard; tail the upper block to the shroud six or eight feet above the upper dead-eye, hook the top burton into the end of the luff. Having given the mast the proper stay, by means of the luffs on the topmast stays and backstays, set up the shrouds in a manner similar to that adopted in the case of lower rigging. Stays, backstays, and shrouds should all be first set up temporarily, and later for a full due, in the order named.

      For light rigging a runner may be used instead of a rigging luff, in setting up, Fig. 316, the top-burton being hooked in the thimble of the runner. Avoid the use of catspaws in the laniards, unless the ends are long enough to admit of cutting off afterwards. The rigging being set up, lash on the sheer poles, secure the ends of the laniards and come up the rackings on them. Lash on the futtock staffs below the eyes of the topmast rigging and inside of the shrouds. These are of rod iron, well served and leathered in order not to chafe the topgallant rigging which passes over them in its course to the top. Seize the forward catharpin legs on each side to the forward shroud, and the after-ones abaft the mast to the after-shroud on the opposite side. The two catharpins thus cross abaft the mast

and are seized together in the cross. General view of eyes of topmast rigging, Fig. 331.

      When ready to rattle down, girt in, and proceed precisely as in rattling down lower rigging, but without omitting ratlines at any shroud.

      Sometimes, after the lower and topmasts are rigged, a tarpaulin coat, fitting snugly, is placed over the eyes of the rigging, as a protection from weather. This answers very well, and if painted, does not detract from the neat appearance of the mast-head.

      Jib-Boom. Being in the stream, bring the boom alongside with the head forward, and reeve a spare piece of rope (studding-sail halliards if at hand), through the sheave-holes in each end, a sufficient number of times, and make it fast. Overhaul down the main pendant-tackle, and hook it into a cuckold's neck formed in the bight of the span, having the boom to hang slightly heel heavy. Sway it up, bearing it clear of the ship's side-ease it inboard, and land it in the gangway; unreeve the span, and carry the boom forward, pointing it through the bowsprit-cap, and reeve the heel-rope, which is done as follows: Pass one end through a single block, hooked to an eye-bolt on one side of the bowsprit-cap; thence through the sheave in the heel, and clinch it to the other bolt, on the opposite side of the cap. Man the heel-rope, and rig the boom out, until the shoulders are just forward of the bowsprit end.^* Put on the band if not already on. This band is fitted with eyes on each side and underneath for the jib-guys and martingale.

      The foot-ropes are fitted with eyes in their outer ends which seize to the jib-guys close to the shackle on the band. The foot-ropes are then stopped out to the guys, that on the starboard side for a sufficient distance to keep it clear of the flying jib-boom. Turks-heads are worked on the foot-ropes at equal distances, to keep the men from slipping on account of the inclination, or steeve, of the boom. The inner ends of the foot-ropes are formed into eyes which are seized to the upper bolts in the bowsprit cap after the jib-boom has been rigged out. Thus fitted, the foot-ropes should be long enough to allow the men who go on the boom to stand with the lower parts of their breasts against it. Reeve the jibstay through the inner sheave-hole of the boom end. Sway the dolphin-striker to its place by means of a tackle from the bowsprit cap and a whip from the jib-boom end and hook it to its eye-bolt; shackle to it the lower end of the jib-martingale and the back-ropes. Fig. 333 shows jib-boom end, and Plate 51 general view of head-booms with detail of whisker and dolphin striker. Place the jib-guys

over the whisker ends (see Whiskers) ship the wythe for the flying jib-boom; man the. heel-rope and rig out, placing the heel in the saddle and clamping it. Unreeve the heel-rope, set up the jib-guys, when ready, and the jib-martingale, the latter being set up by pulling on the back-ropes. Lastly, set up the jib-stay.

      The jib-netting is made of ratline stuff, with 6-inch meshes, and laces to the guys and whiskers.

      Whiskers are swayed on board with a tackle from the forward swifter. A whisker is got into place ready for rigging by means of a jigger from the fore-topmast stay, hooked to a strap about one-third the length of the whisker from its outer end, and another jigger from the bowsprit cap to its inner end. When far enough out the whisker is hooked to a bolt in the bees. When hooked, put on the jib guy, which is fitted with a neat eye to o over the whisker end, and then the whisker jumper. This jumper goes over the whisker with an eye, and sets up to the cutwater, or it may lead through a clump block on the cutwater to the ship's head where it is set up.

      When the flying-jib-boom has been placed and rigged, the flying-jib-guys are rove through a hole in the whisker, or through a thimble strapped (with wire rope) to the whisker, outside of all, thimble on top. Jib and flying-jib guys set up to the bows, or cathead, with three scored hearts.

      The whisker being rigged, slack the stay jiggers, which serve as lifts, and haul on the jib-guys to bring the whiskers athwartship. For detail of rigging on whisker, see Plate 51, Fig. 305, where standing part of forward guy is omitted to avoid confusion.

      Topgallant Masts. Get the topgallant-mast on board by means of the mast rope. Hook the topgallant top-block to a bolt in the topmast cap, and reeve the mast rope first through the block, then through the thimble of a stout lizard, the tail of which is hitched in the royal sheave-hole; lastly, through the sheave in the heel, and cast an overhand knot in the end, or hitch it around the mast to its own part. When the topgallant mast is on board, and up and down forward of the lower mast, secure it there temporarily by a lashing around the head from the lower stay collar, passed clear of the mast rope; cast off the hitch in the end of the mast rope and carry the standing part aloft, hitching it to a bolt in the topmast cap, on the side opposite to where the block is hooked. Fig. 327. Set taut the mast rope, cast off the stop at the stay collar and sway the mast aloft, bending a tripping-line to a bolt in the heel to guy the mast clear on its passage up. Point the head of the royal-mast and sway it up three or four feet above the topmast cap, taking off the lizard, which is now of no further use. When the topsail yard is in its place, the gate, a broad iron

band across the forward part of the trestle-trees. hinged on one side, should be opened while the mast is being swayed aloft to enable it to pass up. The gate is closed as soon as the heel has cleared the topsail yard, and the swinging end secured with a pin.

      Topgallant Rigging, &c. Lash a stout girt-line block to the topmast cap on each side, and send down the ends of the whips abaft all for the jack and funnel, fitted in one, Fig. 328. The rim of the funnel is rounded off to prevent chafe. A grommet fitted on the funnel acts as a bolster for the rigging. Land the funnel on the topmast cap, lash it temporarily, lower on the mast rope till the royal mast-head is about flush with the cap; cast off the girtline and place the funnel. Sway up again on the mast rope and point the royal mast-head well clear of the funnel. Then with the girtline from the cap, sway aloft and get over the stays and rigging in the following order:

      First, Fore-topgallant stay.
Second, Flying-jib stay.
Third, Shrouds.
Fourth, Back stays.

      The eyes of this rigging are made to fit the funnel exactly. Fig. 330.

      A clump-block seized between the topgallant shrouds, below the eye, is for the topgallant lift. Pass the ends of the topgallant shrouds over the futtock staffs, and thence into the top, where they are to be set up with hearts. Do not clamp these shrouds into the horns of the cross-trees until swayed aloft, as it gives just so much more gear to overhaul. The mast can be steadied sufficiently, until fidded, by the fore and aft stay and back stays. Take the back stays to the channels, and reeve the fore and aft stay through its sheave in the jib-boom.

      Royal Rigging. Send up by means of the girt-line at the topmast cap the royal band, with the rigging fitted upon it as described in the previous chapter. Place the band on the mast-head, Fig. 329, reeve the royal shrouds through the arms of the jack to the top, take the back stays to the channels and the fore and aft stay through its sheave in the flying-jib-boom, when the latter is ready for rigging out.

      A small clump-block for the royal lift is seized in between the shroud and back stay, below the band.

      Place the truck, with signal halliards rove and spindle and lightning conductor (copper wire) attached, man the mast rope and sway up the mast, overhauling well the royal shrouds, &c. When the mast is fidded and the flying-jib-boom is rigged out and clamped (see below), set up the stays, back stays and shrouds with jiggers, not forgetting to clamp the topgallant shrouds in the horns of the cross-trees before setting up.

      The Fore-Topgallant Stay reeves through the outer sheave in the jib-boom, the fore-royal through the hole in the flying-jib-boom, outside the sheave for the flying-jib stay.

      The Jib and Flying-Jib Stay reeve through the inner sheaves or holes in their respective booms.

      The Main Topgallant Stay reeves through a hole in the after-part of the fore-cap, setting up in the fore-top. During continued exercises in sending up and down topgallant-masts this stay is frequently led down to the deck, abaft the fore-mast.

      The Main Royal Stay reeves now through the after chock of the fore-topmast cross-trees, so that if the foretopgallant-mast goes the main royal-mast is not in danger. In sending up topgallant-masts the main can be stayed without waiting for the fore. Sets up in the fore-top.

      The Mizzen Topgallant Stay reeves over a small roller in the after-part of the main-cap. Sets up in the main-top.

      The Mizzen Royal Stay leads through a sheave in the after chock of the main-topmast trestle-trees, and down into the main-top.

      All these stays set up with hearts and laniards.

      Flying-Jib-boom. Figs. 304 and 332. Sway it on board with a span, as directed for the jib-boom, and rest it on the head-rail ready for going out. Hang the heel by a slip rope from the fore-topmast stays, reeve off the heel rope through a block secured to the jib-guy, through the sheave in the heel of the boom, securing the end to the neck of the wythe. Pull out on the heel rope and point the end of the flying-jib-boom through the wythe, with the shoulders clear of the jib-boom end. Put on the head of the flying-jib-boom, the band (of iron) fitted with eyes for the flying-jib guys on each side, and one eye underneath for the flying martingale. Reeve the end of the flying martingale through a sheave in the end of the dolphin striker, and the guys through the holes (or thimbles) at the whisker-boom ends. Reeve also the flying-jib and fore-royal stays in their respective sheaves, and under the cleats on the dolphin striker. Seize the foot ropes to the shackles for the flying-jib guys, stopping them out a short distance to the guys, and seize the inner ends (when the boom is rigged out) to the jib guys. Rig out, taking off the slip rope from the fore-topmast stays, clamp the heel to the side of the cap, unreeve the heel rope. Set up the flying-jib martingale, then the fore and aft stays, lastly the royal back stays, shrouds, and flying-jib guys.

      Observe that in staying all masts the stay is usually set up first and then the back-stays, if any, and lastly, the shrouds.

      Topsail Yards. Having towed the yard off to the ship, say on the port side with the starboard yard-arm

forward, lash a large single block at the topmast-head, into a strap sufficiently long to permit it to hang clear of the trestle-trees. Through this reeve a hawser down (outside of all), and bend it on to the slings of the yard, either stopping it to the forward (in this case starboard) quarter, with stout lashings, or use a lizard, and secure the ship's side from chafe by fenders and skids. Hook the port pendant tackle also to a strap on the after-quarter, and man it and the hawser (taken to the capstan), swaying the yard on board, which must be kept from canting aft against the mast by means of a purchase or guy leading from forward. Ease the lizard (or stops) as necessary, sway on the pendant tackle until clear of the ship's side, and lower away, landing the yard as you had it alongside (viz., with the starboard yard-arm forward), in the port gangway, on chocks, which should also be placed underneath the inner quarters, to keep the yard from becoming bowed in the slings through its own weight. Now cast off the hawser and tackle and prepare for rigging.

      It is customary to place the fore-topsail-yard in the port gangway for rigging, and the main-topsail-yard in the starboard.

      For detail of slings see Fig. 336, of yard-arm, 339.

      Quarter Blocks are iron-strapped, with friction-rollers, shackled to bands on the quarters of the yard, underneath. In case of accident compelling the use of a rope strap, it should be single with lashing eyes. There should be separate bands and blocks for the clewlines, as shown in Fig. 336. If not, the quarter block is either double for the topgallant sheet and topsail clewline, or treble, if the topsail reef tackle leads under the yard.

      Burton Straps. Iron bands a few feet inside of the yard-arms, with an eye in the upper part to which the top burton may be hooked.

      Bolt for Bead-Earing, Fig. 372, Plate 71. A bolt on the forward side of the yard, just inside the shoulder and well up on the yard; or it may be an eye in the shoulder band.

      Backer for Head-Earing, Fig. 372, Plate 71, is a broad piece of sennit nailed around the yard, inside and. clear of the topgallant sheet, and fitted with a thimble in its hanging end. The head of the topsail is hauled out by the turns of the head-earing taken through the bolt and held up on the yard by the turns taken through the backer, as will be described more fully under Bending Sails. For backer, see Fig. 372.

      Jack Stays for bending are of rod iron, those for reefing, on the topsail yard, may be of wire rope, rove through staples abaft the bending jack-stay on the upper part of the yard, outer ends going over the yard-arm with eyes, the inner ends set up to each other in the slings by

means of small eye-lashings. A rod iron jack-stay often replaces it. Fig. 372.

      Foot Rope. These are of hemp, fitted with an eye going over the yard-arm. They are wormed and the splice served. The neck of the splice lies a little abaft the top of the yard, so as to be clear of the topgallant sheets. Foot-ropes are fitted rove through the stirrups, and the ends taken abaft the mast (when the yard is crossed), and secured to the opposite quarters on top, by means of an eye-lashing passed over the yard, round on the forward side, underneath, up, and back through the eye again, a sufficient number of times; after which two half hitches are taken around all parts to secure the end. This plan of fitting them is recommended, on account of the facility with which the men can get on and off the yard.

      Instead of the eye the outer ends of foot-ropes may be fitted with hooks connecting to an eye-bolt on the after-side of the shoulder-band, or else as described under FLEMISH HORSES. Inner ends of foot-ropes omitted in Fig. 336 to avoid confusion.

      Stirrups are fitted with an eye in the lower end (no thimble), through which the foot-rope reeves and to which it is seized. The upper ends, fitted with small eyes, are seized to the jack-stay staples.

      Flemish Horses. These are spliced around a thimble on the pacific iron for that purpose, and the eye in the other end secured on top of the yard to the jack-stay, the length of the yardarm inside of the sheave hole, with a rose-seizing. These are foot-ropes for the yard-arm men when reefing, &c. It would be better, as is already done on some modern ships, to do away with the flemish horses by carrying out the foot-rope to the pacific iron, fitting the necessary extra stirrups.^*

      Tye Blocks are iron-strapped and connected by a bolt to a band around the slings of the yard; or, in case of two tyes, the tye-blocks shackle to bands fitted at the slings, at a distance apart equal to the diameter of the topmast. The bands are joined by a span, which is used for the purchase to hook in when sending the yard up and down. In case of an accident to the straps of tye-blocks, requiring them to be fitted with rope-straps, it is well to remember that two single straps are needed to make the block stand fair on the yard.

      Parrel. A parrel fitted of wire rope is commonly used. This consists of a long and a short leg, leathered singly, marled together, and again leathered in the wake of

the mast, Fig. 336. Eyes are spliced into the ends of the two legs, and stout quarter seizings placed on both close to the eyes of the short leg. The long leg then passes around the quarter of the yard, half the diameter of the topmast from the centre, and secures to the short one by a rose-seizing on the upper after side. When the yard is crossed the remaining leg is passed on the opposite side and secured in the same manner. There are additional seizings through holes in the jaws to keep the parrel in place. In time these parrels will probably be replaced by an iron cylinder, sliding up and down the topmast, to which the topsail yard is secured by a truss similar to the one on the lower yard. This cylinder, or tub, keeps the yard well trussed to, and its lower edge is low enough to keep the yard off the cap.

      Brace Blocks. Iron-strapped, with friction-rollers, and shackle to the after-bolts in the shoulder-band, block sheave standing up and down. In case of accident to the strap or bolt, use a grommet strap around the yard, single strap around the block, the two straps connected by lock thimbles.

      Lifts are four-stranded, hemp, and blacked. Hook to the shoulder-band, reeve through lower sheave of a sister block seized in between the swifter and next shroud in the topmast rigging, just below the eyes, thence to the top, where they turn up through clump blocks. Set up with jiggers.

      Jewel Blocks. Single, rope or iron-strapped, hook to the pacific iron with sister hooks. Not put in place until the studding sail gear is rove off.

      Tyes. Flexible wire rope. The lower end has a thimble spliced in, to which hooks the fly-block. Passing through the mast-head gin-blocks, they reeve through the tye-block on the yard from out, in, thence up through the topmast trestle-trees, and made fast around the mast-head. The heel of the topgallant-mast is scored out on purpose to admit the tye.

      Small ships have a single tye only, which in this case reeves through a sheave in the topmast, in stead of a gin-block. Bell's purchase (see TOPSAIL HALLIARDS) is used in connection with such tyes.

      The length of the tyes should be such that the fly-blocks will be square with the lower cap when the yard is down.

      See that the yard is fitted with boom irons, reefing cleats, saddles (inboard from sheave holes) for topgallant sheets, &c., and prepare for sending it aloft.^*

      Hook a stout double purchase from the topmast-head to the tye-band (or a strap) in the slings of the yard, Fig. 335.

Coil the lifts on the quarters of the yard (stopping them to, the jack-stays), and reeve marrying-lines for the braces, observing to dip the starboard (or upper) one over the lower stay. Overhaul the top-burtons from aloft, and hook them to the yard-arms; as also a fore-and-aft tackle to the slings to keep the yard from chafing against the mast, as it goes up.

      Man the purchase and walk away, taking through the slack of the starboard-burton, keeping control of the port (or lower) yard-arm, and placing a mat under it to prevent injury to the deck. As soon as the upper yard-arm is well up and clear of the lower stay, commence crossing by keeping to the slack of the fore-and-aft tackle, hauling on the lower burton and starboard brace. Reeve the lifts through the sister-blocks, and as the yard rises above the lower cap, square it; bring to and pass the parrel. Reeve the tyes, hook the fly-block with the halliards rove, and take the strain from the burtons and purchase, which may now be unhooked, and the latter sent down, together with the fore-and-aft tackle. Observe, lastly, to place a block of wood between the slings and lower cap, to keep the yard from bowing, in case the halliards should be slacked or let go; or, as sometimes practised in large ships, have a midship-lift fitted, of such a length as not to permit the yard to touch the cap.

      N.B. – This routine supposes the yard to be lying in the port gangway, with the starboard yard-arm forward.

      Lower Yards. Of the many methods suggested for getting a lower yard on board, the following may be selected as the safest and most seamanlike:

      The yard is towed alongside, on the starboard side, with the port end forward. Top up the fish-boom, Fig. 337, by its topping lift T, the upper block being hooked at the futtock band. Swing the boom around to the starboard side with the usual forward and after guys. (For description of fish-davit, see GROUND TACKLE.) Should there be no sheave in the boom, as at A, lash a block at that point. Lash together two large single blocks, as at B and C. Reeve a pendant through A and B, securing the outboard end to the head of the boom, and take a turn with the other end of the pendant at the sheet bitts.

      Through the block C reeve a hawser, make fast to the bight above C the lower block of a treble purchase from the topmast-head. The other end of the hawser is secured at the slings of the yard, and stopped along the port yard-arm to the pacific iron, with rope stops.

      Protect the hammock rail where the yard is to be landed by blocking up in the netting above the level of the rail.

      When ready, tow the after (starboard) yard-arm out from the ship, keep it end on to the vessel with a guy from forward. Walk away with the treble purchase, and as the

yard comes over the rail, cast off the stops in succession; the pendant easing the yard in to the mast. Use, in addition, a fore-and-aft tackle, and thwartship jiggers to assist in placing the yard across the nettings.^*

      Sling-bands. These are two stout iron bands going around the yard, each side of and near the centre, and connected by an iron span, to which the slings are attached by means of the slip-hook, or "pelican" hook. Plate 36.

      There may be two additional bands, one en each side, for preventer slings, or for the jeer-blocks, if the latter shackle to the yard instead of lashing.

      The Chain-slings are sent aloft by one of the top-burtons, and fit over the lower cap in a saddle for the purpose, or they may be fitted with two shackles that secure to the eyes of a crescent, bolted over the cap. A back-lashing abaft the mast, about one-third the doublings from the mast-head, keeps the strain on the slings in a vertical direction. Plate 36.

      Truss-bands. Iron bands, outside the sling-bands, to which the arms of the truss are secured. sling-bands, also Fig. 338.

      Backer and Staple for Head-earing. There is usually an eye in the shoulder-band for the head-earing. In its absence, a grommet strap of small rope is put on the yard-arm first, with a thimble seized in on top. Backer of rope plaited, fitted similar to the one on topsail yard.

      Lifts, are four-stranded, hemp, blacked. In large ships they are rove as luffs, with the double block at the cap, and single block hooking to the shoulder-band. The standing part hooks to the breech of the yard-arm block, or to a bolt on the shoulder-band. In smaller vessels the lift is a gun-tackle purchase, the standing part hooking to the breech of the upper block. Lower lift blocks at the cap are of iron, the fore usually has additional sheaves (the after ones) for the lower boom topping lift.

      The end of the lift on deck is turned up around a thimble, into which a double (or lighter) purchase is hooked.

      Brace-blocks. Iron strapped, with friction-rollers, hook to shoulder-band, sheave up and down.

      Quarter-Blocks for the topsail-sheets, are iron-strapped and shackle to the band, underneath the yard,

Plate 36. In case of accident to the strap or bolt, seize the quarter-block into a doubled grommet-strap with a round seizing, the bights being secured to the yard on top by a rose-seizing.

      Clew-Garnet-Blocks, Plate 36, are iron-strapped with friction-rollers, and hook to a band around the yard, being forward and inside of the quarter-blocks. They should be fitted with a link or swivel. In case of accident requiring them to be rope-strapped, use single strap with lashing eyes, the latter seized together on top of the yard.

      Quarter-Irons, Fig. 347 b, for the topmast-studding-sail-booms, are screwed to iron bands on the yard about two-thirds out, and are fitted to clamp and unclamp around the boom.

      Boom Irons for the same spars are keyed to the ends of the pacific-irons, and fitted with a roller in the lower part. Fig. 334, also Fig. 347.

      Burton Straps. Iron bands with eyes at top, fitted to the yard inside the sheave for topsail sheets.

      Jackstays, both for bending and reefing, are of iron, the former with staples, the latter passing through eye-bolts on the yard above the bending jack-stay.

      Foot Ropes. Fitted similar to those on the topsail yard; the outer end hooks to the shoulder-band, Fig. 334. The foot-ropes cross forward of the mast, each inner end secured to the opposite arm of the truss and seized to the arm on its own side. The two foot-ropes are seized together where they cross.

      The necessary cleats, &c., having been attached to the yard, it is sent aloft by the jeers; should these not be available, use two pendant-tackles. In either case, hook both top-burtons to the burton-straps on the yard, and reeve and man the braces and lifts-the latter rove single until the yard is aloft. Keep the yard clear of the mast by a fore-and-aft tackle.

      The jeers are two double (better treble) purchases, the upper blocks in small vessels being secured permanently to the chain slings aloft. (See JEER BLOCKS).

      The lower blocks lash around the yard on either side of the slings; the upper blocks hang by long lashings or chain slings from the lower cap, over the forward part of the top rim.

      Sway aloft, keeping control of the fore-and-aft tackle; when high enough key the truss, hook the slings, square the yard by the lifts and braces, unhook the jeers, bur-tons, &c.

      The cross-jack yard differs somewhat in its fittings from the fore and main, as no sail is set upon it. The braces hook to a band well inside the shoulders, so that the brace (which leads forward) may clear the main topmast back-stays.

      The cross-jack yard is got on board by a purchase from the topmast head, and swayed aloft by the same purchase and the burtons.

      The lower yard is sometimes taken first in order, in rigging ship, but by sending the topsail-yards up first, time may be saved.

      Topgallant-Yards. The yard being alongside, sway it on board with the yard-rope, rove through the sheave-hole in the topgallant-masthead, hooking it to the slings, and stopping it down to the forward yard-arm.

      The fittings are as follows, Figs. 340 and 341:

      Slings. An iron band around the center of the yard, with a link for the hooks on the yard-rope.

      Parrel. A grommet on each side of the slings fits around the yard and the jaws, a score being cut in the latter. Both grommets are leathered, and are seized to form eyes abaft, abreast the opening of the jaws. A third grommet strap, also leathered, is seized to one of the eyes, and, when the yard is crossed, passes around the mast, and lashes to the other eye. In port, exercising, a single lashing is substituted for the third grommet-strap. Instead of the first two grommets there might be eyes in the jaws, but these foul in sending the yard up and down, and are liable to get knocked out.

      If the topgallant-yard is not provided with jaws the parrel is formed as above, or with a long and short grommet. The larger strap is long enough to go around the yard and meet the short one, being secured by a lashing of small stuff. Both straps leathered.

      Quarter Blocks. These are double, iron-strapped, friction-rollers, and hook to a band on the yard.

      Strap for the Lizard. A grommet strap slipped over the yard with a thimble seized in the bight, on top of the yard, the strap itself being a few feet from the slings, and called a quarter-strap. To prevent slipping this quarter-strap should be seized to the jackstay.

      Backer and Cringle for Head-earing. Backer same as on top-sail yard. Instead of a head-earing staple, there is a small cringle worked into the eye of the foot-rope, clear of the royal sheet. Figs. 341, b.

      Foot-Ropes, Fig. 341. Fitted with eyes to go over the yard-arms. At sea the inner ends generally cross abaft the mast (preventer parrel) and in port they cross forward of the mast. These inner ends are variously secured. They may be fitted with an eye, lashing to the yard with a flat-seizing, eye abaft and on top of the yard. Or, for convenience in shifting, these ends of the foot-ropes may be fitted, as in Fig. 340, with sister hooks to connect with the thimble of a strap on the quarters of the yard. Or, finally, if the neck of the eye-bolt for the quarter-block is long enough, the ends may hook there.

      Bending Jack Stay, of iron. There is no reefing jack-stay.

      Lift, Fig. 341 a. Single, with a round eye, the splice of which is served. The eye goes over the yard-arm when swayed up for crossing. The lift is cut long enough to reach the top after reeving through the bull's-eye or clump-block between the topgallant shrouds. It is marled to the eye of the brace, so that both lift and brace go on and off together, the double eye being leathered.

      The lift and brace may have their ends secured to eyes projecting from an iron ring which is leathered and goes over the yard-arm.

      Braces. Fitted with an eye in the end, marled to the lift, or hooked into the iron ring above described. It may be single or a whip and pendant.

      Snorters, Fig. 341 a, are in length a little less than half the yard, the outer end spliced into the thimble of an eye-bolt at the yard-arm; the inner end has an eye for the tripping-line, and is secured by a stop to the slings when not in use.

      To Cross a Topgallant Yard, Fig. 342. The yard rope, having a lizard attached (overhauled down forward, and outside of all), is rove through a good-sized grommet passed over the upper yard-arm and hooked to the link in the sling-band, the lizard being rove through the upper quarter-strap thimble, and hitched to the one on the opposite quarter. Take the eye of the lower lift and brace in the topmast rigging, and that of the upper one to the opposite side of the topmast cap, and sway aloft. When the upper yard-arm rises within reach of the man on the topmast cap, take off the grommet, slip on the lifts and braces over the snorters, gathering up the slack of the lower one, and sway away until the slings of the yard are well above the topmast cap, take through the slack of the lower lift, then take a turn of the parrel-lashing abaft the mast, through the eye in the opposite strap, tend the lifts and braces, slack up the lizard, and "sway across," squaring the yard, and passing the parrel for a full due.

      Note. – The outer ends of snorters are generally plaited like sennit, that they may lie flat, and permit the eye of the lift and brace to fit over snugly.

      Royal Yards. The routine of rigging and crossing is precisely similar to that of the topgallant yards; the differences being that the quarter-blocks are single, there are no backers, and the foot-ropes never cross abaft the mast.

      In many ships small hand grommets are worked around the jack-stays for the men to hold on by when at sea.

      These spars are usually swayed on board by means of the fore or main yard and stay tackles; purchases most frequently in use, and convenient at this stage of the equipment.

      Trysail-Masts. The trysail-mast is shipped by means of a tackle hooked to a strap above the futtock-band, the head being pointed through a hole in the after-chock, and the heel (over which the hoops are passed) stepped in a socket or mortise, on the fife-rail, or on the deck. After which, the head is secured by a lashing through a B-cleat underneath the top, or with iron keys; copper having been put on in the wake of the gaff.

      The spanker-mast may be fitted with an iron spindle m the heel, stepping into the heel-strap of the spanker-boom.

      Gaffs. Figs. 343 and 344. The plan at present generally adopted in the service for trysail and spanker gaffs is to fit them with jaws and in connection with a trysail-mast, there being hoops on the gaff and trysail-mast for bending the sail. Gaffs may be seen in some vessels secured directly to the lower mast by means of eye-bolts within each other, like lock thimbles. Another plan is to have a scored batten secured on the after side of the mast in place of a trysail-mast, with metal slides furnished with bending loops sliding up and down in the groove of the batten. In this case the gaff attaches to a sliding chock, which also moves up and down in the score of the batten, "railway fashion," as it is termed.

      The ordinary gaff first described may be fitted with a permanent span of wire rope or chain, from the shoulder band to the after part of the cap, and a similar throat pendant shackling to the upper part of the gaff between the jaws and to a bolt under the top; or, the span and throat pendant may be replaced by peak and throat halliards, sometimes rove in one, as described under running rigging. The blocks for these halliards are iron-strapped.

      Vangs are fitted with a pendant that hooks into a band on the shoulder of the gaff.

      The vang pendants having been hooked, the gaff is sent aloft by means of its halliards, or by a top burton hooked into a strap around the peak pendant and another tackle from under the top, shackling the pendants as soon as the gaff is aloft, and passing the jaw rope or parrel.

      In view of the frequent use of trysail gaffs as derricks in raising weights through the hatches which they plumb, the gaffs and their fittings should be as substantial as possible.

      A very important part of the fitting of a gaff is the saddle (a), Fig. 344, Plate 64. This consists of a block of wood, which bolts in between the jaws and is hollowed out

to fit the mast. It facilitates the hoisting of the gaff, for at whatever angle it may be, the same smooth surface of the saddle is presented to the mast.

      Saddles are particularly useful in small vessels where the gaff is frequently lowered and hoisted.

      The spanker-gaff should always be fitted with throat and peak halliards to hoist and lower, as necessary; for otherwise it would be almost impossible to reef the sail. In brigantines and schooners it is not unfrequently the case that eye-bolts are attached to each side of the jaws, for preventer lashings in heavy weather; and a single block (grommet-strapped) is put over the gaff end for a down-haul; vangs being dispensed with as useless, on account of the sharp angle at which they act, in consequence of the height of the gaff.

      Booms. That for the spanker is neatest if shipped with a goose-neck to an eye-bolt on the mizzen-mast, Fig. 345, and fitted with an iron band over the boom-end for the topping-lift and the guys, both of which connect to it with sister hooks. The sheet-blocks are best if strapped with rope-grommets, on account of the jerks and checks in jibbing, which render eye-bolts liable to snap and break at the neck. These blocks are fitted with clip-hooks if the eye is up and down. The foot-ropes hook into a band on the boom end, and seize to eyes on the sheet band. Fig. 346.

      The topping-lifts (one on each side) are usually fitted with sister hooks in the end and hook to an iron band, about one-fifth of the extreme length of the boom from the outer end; while the running parts reeve through blocks at each side of the mizzen tressle-trees, and thence to the deck, where gun-tackle purchases are attached. In men-of-war of the smaller class, and in the merchant service, the topping-lift is not unfrequently single, and rove through the gaff-end, and a roller in the after-part of the mizzen-topmast tressle-trees; the end is turned up around a thimble into which a jigger is hooked.

      On the main-boom of brigantines and schooners the topping-lift is usually fitted with the standing part secured at the mainmast-head by hooking in an eye-bolt of the wythe; while the lower end is spliced around a double block, in which a fall is rove, leading through a single one, and a sheave in the boom. In this class of vessels the clew of the sail shackles to a band around the boom. A heavy strap (which is cleated forward), with thimbles at each side, is put around the boom at the sheet-block for the boom-tackle pendant, which is fitted with a hook in the after-end and a thimble in the forward, and is used only in going large.

      The boom is got in its place by means of the throat-halliards and topping-lift, assisted by guys and thwartship tackles, as requisite.

      Studding-Sail Booms. That for the lower

studding-sail is fitted with an iron goose-neck and key, which connects to a bolt in the forward part of the fore-channels, and is shipped either by means of the fore and main yard-tackles, or with tackles on the fore topmast back-stay and forward swifter of the fore-rigging. On the outer end, about two-thirds from the goose-neck, an iron band is fitted on the boom, having eye-bolts on the forward, upper, and after sides, for the topping-lift and the guy-blocks; mooring pendants with large thimbles in the lower ends for the boats, and a Jacob's ladder are hooked, when in port, to the boom. The eyes for the pendants are underneath the boom, and those for the Jacob's ladder are on the upper after side.

      The topping-lift is of hemp, it hooks to the upper eyebolt in the band on the boom, reeves through a metal block hooked to an eye in the bolt which shackles the fore brace-block to the yard, thence through a block at the lower cap, usually the after sheave of the lift-block. The inboard end of the topping-lift is turned up around a thimble, into which a purchase is hooked.

      The guy-blocks are iron-strapped and hook to the band.

      When the boom is rigged out in port a life-line is seized to the topping-lift, about breast-high from the boom, with its inner end secured inboard in the chains, in line with the boom.

      When the boom is not in use it is hauled alongside by the after-guy, and rests in cranes, shipped for the purpose in the waist, the topping-lift being unhooked and triced up out of the way.

      The lower boom is so called at sea, and is known as the swinging-boom in port.

      Topmast Studding-Sail Booms. Round, spruce, or yellow pine spars, unpainted excepting their projecting ends. The outer end is fitted with a permanent tack block, swivelled upon it, Fig. 347, and in line with the axis of the boom, or else there is an iron pin driven through the boom vertically, near its outer end, Fig. 348.

      The inner end, or heel, has a deep score for a heel-lashing when the boom is rigged out. Outside of this score there are two holes bored in the boom, one up and down, and one fore and aft, Fig. 347. A grommet strap is worked through each hole, one having a thimble for the in-and-out jigger, and the other a thimble for the tricing-line.

      The inner strap is fitted through the hole bored fore and aft, in line with the score. It is used for the boom tricing-line. Splice a heel-rope around the neck of this inner strap.

      Unclamp the quarter iron, Fig. 347 b, on the yard, and prepare for sending the boom aloft.

      Carry out a whip on the fore-yard, secure it well up on the fore-lift. Hook a clew-jigger from the lower cap to one of the grommets on the heel of the boom; the whip from the fore-yard is hitched to the boom far enough out to clear

the quarter-iron, using the heel-lashing for a back-lashing. Have a guy from forward, sway away on whip and clew-jigger, keeping the outer end uppermost. Land the boom on the quarter-iron. Now sway up on the heel and point the boom fair through the boom-iron. The blocks for the lower studding-sail halliards and topmast studding-sail tack, when placed, go over with straps fitted to go neatly around the boom-end, and are kept from slipping in by the iron pin above referred to.

      When the tack-block is a permanent one, with a swivel, the halliard-block hooks with sister-hooks to the neck of the swivel for the tack.

      The above blocks are taken off in port, except the swivelling tack-block, which, when fitted, is a fixture.

      Clamp the quarter-irons, hook the boom tricing-line, rig out to the square mark and take off the clew jigger and whip. Lastly, seize a hook horizontally on the yard, just inside the burton strap, with the point outboard, for the purpose of securing the boom, when setting the sail,^* and shift the in-and-out jigger ready for use.

      Top-gallant Studding-sail Booms, Fig. 349, are rigged nearly in the same manner, but have no halliard-block at the outer end, and the tricing-line goes directly through the inner hole in the boom (no grommet), with a Mathew Walker knot in the end. There is no quarter-iron; instead, a quarter-strap of rope may be fitted. This forms a figure eight around the yard and boom, seized where it crosses on the yard. One end is split to form two eyes. The other end has one eye (all eyes leathered), and the two ends are held together, when the boom is rigged out, by a toggle. The toggle is taken out as soon as the boom is rigged in, to be ready for tricing up. Fig. 350.

      Instead of the rope quarter-strap, some ships use a rope jackstay, seized to the eye of the topsail lift, and set up to its opposite in the slings of the yard. In this case a becket is fitted in the heel of the boom, which toggles to a travelling bull's-eye on the jackstay.

      The tricing-line leads from the top up through a single block seized to the forward swifter of the topmast rigging, close up to the eyes, thence down to the boom, where it is rove through a single block, and is then secured to the heel of the boom. When it is required to rig the boom out, the tricing-line is converted into an in-and-out jigger, thus:-The tricing-line is let go in the top, and the single block, through which it passes at the heel of the boom, is taken out on the yard, taking out the bight of the tricing-line with it, and hooks to a thimble on the yard.

      The boom, when required for setting the sail, is secured

by means of a lashing passed over a hook on the yard, like that for the topmast studding-sail boom, already mentioned.

      The booms on the topsail-yard are usually sent up by the halliards, rove through a block, secured to the forward-swifter of the topmast rigging, the boom being slung in a span.

      Besides enabling us to measure for and cut standing rigging, a fore-and-aft draft of the ship gives the length of all running rigging. To measure for main-topsail clew-lines, for example, supposing them to be double, take twice the distance from the clew of the main-topsail, Fig. 284, Plate 43, to the quarter-block on the topsail-yard, to which add the distance thence to the deck, plus end enough to lead out; double this to get the other clew-line and divide by six to reduce it to fathoms, and so for any other rope. One half of each upper yard should be represented as on the cap, in order to measure for lifts, &c.

      When a rope leads direct and is not exposed to unnecessary friction, it is said to have a clear or a fair lead, an extremely desirable condition, and one too frequently neglected.

      Rope supplied in coil has had turns hove in it in the coiling. To get these turns out, the rope must be "thorough-footed." To do this, if the rope is right-handed, lay the coil flat, with that end inside which goes around "with the sun" (to the right), now haul that end up through the coil and. coil it down, left-handed. Then dip the new upper end down through and coil again left-handed, and repeat a third time. The rope is then stretched, and the gear cut and rove off. First in importance may be mentioned:

      Fore-Braces, Fig. 351. Hemp, left-handed, standing part of wire to extend forward of smoke-stack. Standing part hooks to eye-bolts in the bibbs or to the neck of the brace-block bolt at the bibbs, as in Fig. 351b, thence through blocks on the yard from up, down, back through other blocks on the outside of bibbs and down to sheaves in the fife-rail (usually from aft, forward).

      Main-Braces. Standing part hooked into the bumpkins aft, or into an eye in the breech of the block, then through brace-blocks from down, up, back to others on the bumpkin (inside the standing parts) and through sheaves or leaders in the bulwarks.

      On board large ships where there is much drift to the

main-brace, it will be found very convenient to fit the standing part with a jigger, thus: Into the end of the brace splice a single block, and to the eye in the strap of the brace-block on the bumpkin, hook the double block of a jigger. Reeve the fall, the hauling part leading in through the bulwarks with the hauling part of the main-brace. After hauling the main-brace moderately taut in the usual way, a few hands on the jigger fall on the standing part will get the brace as taut as desirable.^* Fig. 353.

      It is usual to have a permanent timenoguy^† leading from the mizzen rigging to the main-brace, the object being to keep the bight of the brace from fouling the quarter-davits while working ship.

      The same has been found needful on board very long ships in the main rigging to avoid fouling the waist davits.

      The timenoguy is seized to the standing part of the brace, the hauling part reeving through a thimble.

      Cross-jack Braces. The standing parts hooked into the strap of a double block^‡ hooked to an eye-bolt on each side of the mainmast, in a line with the yard^§-thence to the brace-blocks from down, up, and back to the inner sheaves of those on the mainmast.

      Fore-topsail Braces. Standing parts fitted with eye-splices lashed together abaft the main topmast-head, laid along in the doublings of the collar of the main topmast-stay, and stopped down on each side to and below the crotch, to avoid chafe from the foot of the sail and brace blocks; thence forward and down through the brace-blocks to clump-blocks, seized to the main-stay, Fig. 351, at the fork. Thence through blocks at the bibbs to the main fife-rail. Lead there through sheaves, usually from forward, aft.

      Main-topsail Braces. Standing part hooks to an iron traveller, which moves up and down the mizzen topmast to shift the strain lower down as it becomes greater (if the mizzen-topsail is reefed or taken in), thence to the yard and down to hanging blocks on the mizzen-mast, about half way between the top and the deck.

      Mizzen-topsail Braces. The standing parts hook to the strap of a block at each side of the main cap; thence to the yard from down, up, back to the blocks, and so down through the lubber's-hole to the deck.

      All the above braces are of hemp, left-handed.

      Fore-top-gallant Braces are usually rove single, the standing parts going over the yard-arms with

the lifts, thence through span-blocks on the main-topmast-stay collar, and others, under the eyes of the topmast rigging-whips (the standing parts of which are secured to the deck) being attached to the ends, in large ships. The whip-blocks should be iron bound with swivel-eyes. Brace of hemp, whip manilla.

      Main-top-gallant Braces. Vide preceding, and substitute mizzen for "main." Brace hemp, whip manilla.

      Mizzen-top-gallant Braces. Through small blocks, underneath the main-topmast cross-trees, or seized to the main-topmast backstays. Brace single, manilla rope.

      Fore-royal Braces are single (without whips), and rove like the top-gallant braces, except that they are taken to the main-top-gallant mast-head. The blocks are now generally made of metal, and hook to eyes in the funnel, or are seized to the top-gallant rigging.

      Main-royal Braces. Same as fore-royal braces, except taken to mizzen-top-gallant mast-head.

      Mizzen-royal Braces. Single. and through sheaves in the after-chock of the main-topmast cross-trees. All royal braces are of manilla rope.

      Topmast Studding-sail-boom Braces may be either single, going over the boom-end with a running-eye and leading through a tail-block on the forward swifter of the main rigging; or double, with a pendant and whip leading to the main rigging.

      Preventer Braces are fitted with a pendant and whip, the former going round the yard, hooking to its own part, and the latter led to the deck, well aft, when for bad weather. When rove for action, they are led forward.

      Topsail-Halliards. Where double tyes and gins are used, the standing part of the halliards is spliced to a single block (which is iron-strapped and fitted with a swivel), in the channels, on each side, and then rove through a double one hooked to a thimble in the end of its respective tye. A double purchase is used in heavy ships.^*

      Top-gallant Halliards; rove off on going to sea. The top-gallant yard ropes being rove in the jack-blocks, a "short yard rope" reeves through the sheave in the mast with sister-hooks in one end, hooking to the slings of the yard, and a thimble is then seized into the other end, for the top-gallant purchase. This is a tackle hooked into the lower trestle-trees, fall sent on deck. To unreeve the short yard rope on going into port, turn out the thimble.

      The long yard rope is coiled down in the top, ready for use in sending down the yard if necessary.

      Royal-Halliards are best, if fitted with a gun-tackle purchase, thus: The yard-rope, being rove in a leader on deck, is passed through a single block fitted with a strap having an eye, and toggled on abreast the top, as represented in Fig. 352, Plate 65. In the event, then, of having to send the yard down, it is only necessary to take off the, block, which will leave the yard-rope clear for running.

      The strap of the block may be a temporary one and made of a selvagee and the yard-rope, Fig. 352 (a).

      Throat-Halliards. If for a spanker or trysail, they usually consist of a purchase rove through double and single blocks; the former hooked to a bolt on the under side of the after lower chock, and the latter to a band and eye-bolt at the jaws of the gaff; the hauling part leading through the upper block from aft forward, to the deck. In brigantines and vessels with a boom-mainsail, both blocks are double,

      Peak-Halliards. The best plan for peak-halliards is to reeve them as follows: Hook the standing part into the breech of the mast-head block (which is double), and reeve thence through the inner block of the gaff, from aft forward; then up through the port sheave of the mast-head block, out through the block at the gaff-end, from forward aft; and lastly, back to the sheave of the mast-head block.

      The merit of this system will be apparent, if we consider that the hauling part, by being rove last, at the gaff-end, permits the peak to drop the instant the halliards are let go.

      The standing part may be rove through the third sheave of the block (treble) at mast-head, and have a small single block spliced in the end, through which reeve a whip; this enables the peak to be pulled up taut. The latter plan is adopted by all large schooners and sloops, and is on the same principle as applying a purchase to the standing part of the main brace.

      Storm-Staysail Halliards. The fore-storm staysail-stay, fitted of rope of the proper size, having in its upper end a stout iron toggle covered with leather, toggles into the crotch of the fore-stay. The lower end, after passing through the hanks of the sail, reeves through a stout bull's-eye strapped to the bowsprit, and sets up with a luff. The halliards are sometimes a luff, and sometimes a gun-

tackle purchase. The lower block hooks to the head-cringle of the sail, the upper to an eye-bolt under the top, or to a strap around the collar of the fore-stay.

      This gear is rove only on the probabilities of bad weather.

      Jib arid Topmast-Staysail Halliards are rove through the upper sheave of iron fiddle-blocks, hooked to a bolt in each side of the topmast trestle-trees, thence through hanging blocks in the after-part of the trestle-trees, to keep them clear of the topsail tyes and lifts. The jib-halliards are double, and reeve through a block in the head of the sail, with the standing part half-hitched and lashed to the crotch of the stay collar. Halliards of manilla. The staysail-halliards are single, with sister-hooks to the head-cringle and a whip, the block of which comes just below the hanging block when the sail is taken in. Pendant hemp, whip manilla.

      The lower sheaves of the fiddle-blocks serve for the topsail buntlines.

      The jib-halliards should be led on the starboard side, and those for the staysail on the port-a rule which is self-evident, when we remember that the latter is set on the port topmast-stay. The method of fitting these halliards with whips, is not approved of by seamen generally, on account of the liability to tangle and get foul in hauling down the sail; and the obvious necessity of separating the parts widely from each other.

      Note. Whenever a whip is used, as in the foregoing, it is well to use an iron-strapped swivel-block, splicing the pendant into the eye of the swivel, to avoid cable-laying.

      Flying-Jib Halliards, manilla, are rove single, through a small iron fiddle-block hooked to an eye in the lower rim of the funnel (on the port side) under the eyes of the rigging, and connected to the head-cringle on the sail by means of sister-hooks. In large ships, however, they are sometimes rove double, and the standing part seized to the splice of the stay on the under side. The small iron fiddle-blocks are for flying-jib halliards, topgallant buntlines, and topgallant bunt-jigger.

      All iron hanging blocks, like those above described for head halliards, as well as those for the topsail-tyes, are commonly known as "gin" blocks.

      Gaff-topsail Halliards are single, and in barks and ships, are rove through a sheave in the topgallant mast-head, and attached to the yard with a fisherman's bend; or if the sail is triangular in shape, to the headcringle, with a sheet-bend. On board of schooners and hermaphrodite brigs, they are rove through a sheave in the topmast-head.

      Lower Studding-Sail Halliards. The outer halliards reeve through the lower sheave of a fiddle-block, which is strapped with a long pendant, and hooks to

a strap around the topmast-head above the eyes of the rigging; thence to the halliard-block at the end of the topmast studding-sail-boom, and attached to the yard with a fisherman's bend, or a studding-sail halliard-bend. The upper sheave of the fiddle-block is for the topmast studdingsail-boom topping-lift, when one is used. Or they are rove through a span lock on each side, which is secured with lashing-eyes above the topmast rigging, and forward of the shrouds, the hoisting part leading on deck through the cross-trees and the lubber's-hole. The inner halliards are usually formed out of the fore clew-jigger, hooked to the inner head-cringle of the sail and to the cap.

      Topmast Studding-Sail Halliards are rove on each side through a single block hooked to the topmast cap; thence abaft the topsail-yard, through the jewel-block, and so to the deck, where they are attached to the central part of the studding-sail yard with a fisherman's or studding-sail halliard-bend.

      By Plate 32, the halliard-block may hook to the link in the crescent on the topmast cap.

      Topgallant Studding-Sail Halliards are rove on each side, through a single block (which is fitted with a rope-strap and tail), hitched above the eyes of the topgallant rigging; thence abaft, to the jewel-block, and so to the top, where they are bent to the studding-sail yard, in the same manner as the halliards previously mentioned, the hoisting part being sent down to the deck abaft, and clear of all.

      The halliard-blocks at the mast-head are much neater when fitted with lashing-eyes.

      All the studding-sail halliards are manilla.

      Fore and Main Sheets. The standing parts are connected to eye-bolts on the outside of the bulwarks with sister-hooks, just forward of the sheaves for the hauling parts; thence they are rove up through the blocks at the clews of the sail, and back, inboard through the bulwark sheaves. Hemp, tapered. Fig. 357.

      Topsail Sheets. When double, as on board of first-rates, the standing parts are clinched around their own parts and go around the yard-arms outside of all, and thence rove from out in, through the sheet blocks to the yard sheaves, and the quarter-blocks in the slings; being led, lastly, to the bitts on deck, forward of the mast. If single, they are simply secured to the clew-cringle with hooks; but where chain is used, they are connected by small stout iron shackles.

      Topsail sheets are usually hemp, Fig. 356.

      Topgallant and Royal Sheets are always single. The former hook to the clews of their respective sails, and the latter have a sennit eye, which fits over a toggle on the clew of the royal. Topgallant sheets reeve through the topsail-yards, to the after-sheaves^* of the quarter-blocks, thence they are led through the lubber's hole to the deck. Royal sheets are rove in the same way, except through the sheaves and quarter-blocks of the topgallant yards, and thence through thimbles on the futtock-staffs of the topmast rigging (abreast of the second shrouds), to the top or deck, as may be preferred.

      These sheets are of hemp.

      Storm-Staysail Sheets are temporary purchases, and consist usually of stout luffs hooked (and moused) to the clew-cringles, and brought well aft, in order to form, as near as possible, a line with the foot of the sail. The hauling part should then lead from the forward-block, by which a greater purchase is obtained; although the reverse of this is advocated by many seamen, on account of the difficulty sometimes experienced in getting a turn with the belaying-end, in consequence of the flapping of the sail; but this objection will be entirely overcome, if the sheet be hauled aft, and the foot taut, before hoisting.

      Trysail Sheets. The best plan for fitting these is to have a pendant attached to the clew of the sail for the sheet to hook into, as it saves the trouble of "lighting up" the blocks to hook and unhook in shifting the sheet, as in wearing ship, &c. The sheet is an ordinary luff and hooks well aft to an eye-bolt in the deck.

      Jib wad Topmast-Staysail Sheets. Both of these are fitted with a hemp pendant and manilla gun-tackle purchase, as follows:

      The pendant, which is wormed and served, shackles into the clew-iron, and has a single block spliced into the inboard end. The other block of the purchase hooks to an eyebolt in the deck. A third single block is often hooked into the deck abaft the purchase-block, as a leader for the hauling part.^†

      The deck blocks for the staysail sheets are forward of those for the jib.

      The standing parts of these head sheets hook into beckets in the breech of the pendant block.

      Flying-jib Sheets, may be single, but are gen-

erally fitted with a pendant and whip, hemp and manilla. The pendant shackles or hooks into the clew-iron, the standing part of the whip secures to the whisker or to the head-rail, and the whip reeves through a block on the end of the pendant, a thimble on the whisker and in on the forecastle, forward of the stay-sail sheets.

      The object of the pendant is to keep the weather whip-block to windward of the stay, if possible, and it is fitted accordingly, sometimes reeving, itself, through the thimble on the whisker, the whip coming inside of it.

      Spanker Sheets, are rove in one with the guy. The standing parts are hooked to the shoulder-band, and rove to the (double) block in each quarter; thence through the sheet-blocks on the boom from forward aft, and back to the second sheaves of the double blocks.

      Boom-mainsail Sheets. In small craft, as schooners, &c., a purchase of double-blocks, and working on a traveller, is used; but in larger vessels, two (attached by separate straps, and hooked to eye-bolts in each quarter) are employed to manage the boom-the hauling parts in either case leading from the upper block. This latter method is by far the better, as every one who has had to "jibe" a boom-mainsail, with a single sheet and crotch-ropes, in heavy weather, will bear witness to.

      Gaff-topsail Sheets are formed of a single piece of rope, which is middled, and the bight passed through the clew-cringle of the sail; the ends being thrust also through the bight, are led down on each side of the gaff to a belaying cleat on the boom, near the jaws.

      Studding-sail Sheets. Those for the lower studding-sail consist of a single piece of rope, passed through the inner clew-cringle like those for the gaff-topsail (or the two parts may be seized together), and in setting the sail, one sheet is rove from forward aft, through a thimble or block on the goose-neck, in order to bring the clew close down to the boom, and the other led inboard over the hammock-rail, on the forecastle, by which to haul on board the sail, when taking it in.

      In fitting a topmast studding-sail, two sheets are also required, which are attached to the clew in the same manner as those for the lower studding-sail. One (called the short sheet), being passed forward of the topsail, and aft through a thimble (seized to the jack-stay or quarter-iron) on the outer quarter of the lower yard, into the top, where it is belayed to a cleat; and the other, or deck-sheet, being led to the forecastle, forward of the yard. The sheets and down-haul are always made up with the sail.

      The top-gallant studding-sail sheet is simply spliced into the clew of the sail (having parcelling on it for two or three feet below, to avoid chafe from the foot-rope of the topsail-yard), and led into the top, where it is hitched around the

forward-swifter, or it may be led on deck, where it may be made of much service when taking the sail in, in a fresh breeze. The above sheets are manilla.

      Fore and Main Tacks are hemp, tapered, rove double, Fig. 357 (except now and then on board of small vessels, where they are single). The standing part, which is wormed and served for a fathom or so from the end (as a protection from wet), is hooked to the bumpkin^* and rove through the tack-block at the clew of the sail-then back through a leading-block inside of the standing part, and a hole in the bulwarks.

      Studding-sail Tacks, manilla, hook to the tacks of their respective sails, and are rove from in out, through the blocks at the boom-ends. That for the topmast studding-sail is led aft, through a tail-block on the forward-swifter of the main-rigging; and the tack of the top-gallant studding-sail, through a leader tailed around the dead-eye of the after topmast shroud.

      The top-gallant studding-sail tack is bent, not hooked.

      Note. The double block in the main rigging for the tack and boom-brace should not be tailed to the shrouds, as it hauls them out of line and stretches them unduly. It should rather hook to the eye of a long pendant, which hooks far enough aft in the main-chains to form a line with the tack, and passes through a lizard at the proper place in the main rigging.

      Spanker and Boom-mainsail Tack (Lashings), are passed through the cringle (into which they are spliced), and an eye-bolt on the upper side of the boom.

      The spanker-tack lashing is more frequently passed around the spindle of the spanker-mast step.

      Trysail-tack Lashings are passed around the foot of the trysail mast, on a line with the foot of the sail, or through an eye-bolt in the after part of the fife-rail.

      Where the trysail is fitted "railway-fashion," the lower end of the grooved batten has a chock to keep the sliding hanks in. This chock has an eye for the tack lashings.

      Note. In laying-to, in a small vessel, under a balanced-reefed (boom) mainsail, the tack of the sail should be lashed up to the jaws of the gaff, and the whole hoisted several feet up the mast by means of the throat-halliards. In this way the sail is elevated to the wind above the waves, and

in the event of being boarded by a quarter sea, it cannot lodge in the belly of the sail, but will pass between it and the boom.

      Tacks of Head Sails. All head sails have a cringle in the tack with an iron thimble. To secure the jib tack there is a bail, Fig. 333, or horse-shoe of iron, spanning the upper part of the jib-boom, inside the stay. The two ends of the bail have eyes, through which passes. the pin for the sheave of the jib-stay. On this bail are sister-hooks, which hook into the tack thimble.

      The flying-jib tack is fitted in precisely the same way, the bail being held in its place by the pin of the sheave for the flying-jib stay. Fig. 332.

      Both bails have projecting eyes, well down, for the down-haul blocks.

      For the staysail is fitted a long strap, with sister-hooks in the upper end. The strap is seized to the topmast-stay. and has drift enough for the foot of the staysail to clear the heel of the jib-boom. The hooks in the strap hook into the staysail tack thimble.

      This does away with the necessity of tack lashings.

      Clew-Garnets are used only on the courses. Lead from the deck to the clew-garnet block under the yard from in out, through the clew block in the sail, standing part taken between the head of the sail and the yard, and made fast to the arm of the truss.

      Topsail Clewlines. For small ships may be single, or single with a whip. For large vessels rove as follows: From the deck through the forward sheave of the quarter-block on the topsail-yard, thence through the clew-line block on the sail, the standing part taken up between the head of the sail and the yard, and made fast to the neck of the tye-block.

      It would be far better to have a separate block in the quarter of the yard for the clewline, the same as is fitted for clew-garnets. This enables the clewline to be unhooked and shifted to the cap (as is often done) without interfering with the topgallant sheets. Moreover, such a block has enough play to give a fairer lead to the clewline when the sail is bellied out by a strong breeze, and the sail is always hauled up snugger. Fig. 336 shows such a block, fitted.

      Topgallant and Royal Clewlines, are both single, are bent to the clews of the sails, and rove through the quarter-blocks of their respective yards, and thence to the deck by way of the lubber's-hole. Topgallant clewlines rove double in large ships, standing part secured to the neck of the quarter-block.

      Lower Studding-sail Clewlines, are simply bent to the clews and reeve abaft the sail, through small single blocks on the inner end of each lower studding-sail yard, and thence are led inboard to a tail-block on the forward swifter in wake of the futtock rigging. This clew-line becomes the gear tricing-line when the sail is in. The clewlines are frequently led through a glut in the belly of the sail.

      Fore and Main Clew-jiggers. Each consists of a gun-tackle purchase, hooked to the clews of the courses forward and to eye-bolts underneath the forward part of the tops. In furling sails, they are found very useful for rousing the clews and leeches up forward of the yard; while they also serve the purpose of inner halliards for the lower studding-sails, and are often employed as yard-arm jiggers in bending or as reef-tackles in reefing.

      Topsail clew-jiggers. Like those for the courses. They are found very convenient in taking the clews well up above, and forward of the yard, greatly facilitating the operation of furling. Upper block hooks under the topmast trestle-trees, or to a strap fitted around the forward cross-tree, close in.

      The lower blocks of clew-jiggers are secret and fitted with a pendant and sister-hooks. All clew-jiggers should be long enough to reach to the deck.

      Fore and Main Buntlines. Usually rove double (i.e., with two legs on each side), a double block hooked under the top and a swivel-block are used in reeving off each pair of legs. The swivel-block resembles a fiddle-block in appearance, except that both shells are of equal size, and their ends connected by a swivel.

      Reeve the standing part of the buntline through the upper sheave of its swivel-block, then take both ends of the standing parts through the sheaves of the block under the top, from aft forward, and toggle these ends, which are fitted with eyes, to toggles on the foot of the sail.

      Through the lower sheave of the swivel-block is rove a whip, standing part made fast on deck, hauling part led through a sheave in the fife-rail.

      Where there is but little drift between the top and the yard for the buntlines (and leechlines) there are fitted instead of blocks under the top a pair of double blocks on each side, hanging by the legs of a short pendant from a bolt in the forward part of the lower cap; sister-hooks in the bight of the pendant hooking to the bolt. The inside double block is for the buntlines, the outboard one is for the leechlines. Fig. 358.

      Topsail Buntlines are single, and rove through the lower sheaves of fiddle-blocks^* under the eyes of the

topmast rigging, thence forward through the thimbles of lizards hitched around the neck of the tye-blocks and down to the foot-rope of the sail, to which they toggle-the hauling part leading to the deck through the lubber's-hole. They should be cut long enough to land the topsail on deck.

      Topgallant Buntlines lead through the blocks under the eyes of the topgallant rigging and toggle to the foot of the sail, the hauling parts leading on deck.

      They are sometimes fitted with two legs, one toggled to the foot, the other to the leech of the sail, so that when the sail is taken in, the leech is brought along the yard ready for furling.

      Topgallant buntlines have lizards at the slings the same as topsail buntlines.

      In small vessels there is but one buntline. It is spliced around a span, both ends of which are toggled to the foot of the sail.

bent to the head cringle of their respective sails, and after being rove through a few of the upper hanks, and a single block hooked to the bail (see TACKS) are led inboard. Jib down-haul port side, flying-jib starboard side.

      Should the bail carry away, both the tack and down-haul blocks would be adrift; it is therefore safer to seize the blocks to their respective guys.

      Topmast Staysail Down-haul. Rove same as above, comes inboard on the port side, down-haul block seized to the stay, or an eye-bolt in the bees.

      Studding-sail Down-hauls. That for the topmast studding-sail is bent to the outer end of the yardarm and rove thence through a thimble on the leech, to the down-haul block at the tack, leading on deck, forward of the foresail, across the forecastle to the opposite side. That for the topgallant studding-sail is merely bent to the inner yard-arm of the sail, and led abaft all to the top.

      Gail-topsail Down-haul (and Clewline) is led from the after clew of the sail (to which it is bent), through a single block at the head of the sail and thence through the hanks on the mast down to the deck.

      Topsail reef-tackles reeve up through the lubber's-hole, through the upper sheave of a sister-block in the eyes of the topmast rigging (or better, through a single block at the topmast cap), thence through a sheave in the topsail yardarm and a secret block on the leech of the topsail. The end of the standing part secures around the pacific-iron.

      Sometimes the reef-tackles are fitted thus: The standing part is spliced to the strap of a bloc] shackled to the leech of the sail, below the close-reef bald, thence led upward through the forward sheave of a double block on the yardarm outside of all, down through the block on the leech, up to the remaining sheave of the double block, and so to the after sheave of the quarter-block, and lastly, through the lubber's-hole to the deck. In this case the quarter-block is three-fold, if there is no special block for the clewline.

      Fore and Main Reef-pendants are hooked to the cringle and rove through a single block with lashing eyes, fitted to the yard just outside the lift. There is a thimble in the other end to which hooks the lower block of the clew-jigger, upper block being hooked at the cap.

      Instead of these pendants regular lower reef-tackles are being fitted. These consist of a gun-tackle purchase, the lower block hooked to the reef-cringle, upper block to an eye-bolt on the under forward part of the yard-arm. The hauling end leads to the deck through a block seized to the arm of the truss. These reef-tackles are cut long enough for yard-arm jiggers in bending sail.

      These are confined to the courses and are clinched to the leech-outer one about one-third down from the head-earing cringle, and the inner one about two-thirds-and thence rove up through leading blocks on the bending jack-stay^* to the inner and outer sheaves (respectively) of a double block hooked under the top, the hauling part of the leech-line reeving through fair leaders on the lower rigging to the side rack, on deck.

      See also lead described under Buntlines. Fig. 358.

      Note. In large ships they are sometimes temporarily rove on the topsail-yards (through tail-blocks on the forward swifters) for furling sails, where the leeches are heavy.

      Spanker and Trysail Brails are middled, and the bights secured to their respective eyelet holes on the leech of the sail by cross-seizings, the ends rove through single blocks seized to the hanks on the trysail-mast.

      In addition to the brails there is a down-haul for hauling the head of the sail down on the gaff, rove through a block hooked in the jaws of the gaff. On the opposite side, through a similar block, is rove a clew rope for taking the clew up toward the throat.

      A Slab Line is sometimes used on the foresail. It is rove through a tail-block secured to the slings of the yard, abaft, and hanging down clear of the yard. The end is taken down abaft the sail and spliced around a span fitted with eyes, which toggle to the inner buntline toggles.

      Lower Boom Guys. When double, the standing part of the forward one has an eye, seizing to the jib-guy just forward of the whisker, seizing to cross at every turn to make the eye lay flat. Rove thence through a single block on the boom, and back to a block with clip hooks at the bees, the hauling part leading inboard to the forecastle. When single, they connect to the boom by sister-hooks, and the block at the boom is omitted. The after guys are rove in the same manner, except abaft, to a bolt in the side and a sheave in the chess-tree, just forward of the gangway,

      Spanker-boom Guys. Vide Sheets.

      Bunt-jiggers are used for the topsails, courses and sometimes topgallant-sails. Courses and topgallant sails have single bunt-jiggers (or bunt-whips), topsails, a whip and pendant. The topsail bunt-jigger pendant for the fore leads through a single block lashed to the topmast-stay collar, close in to the trestle-tree. For the main and mizzen through the starboard and port upper sheaves, respectively, of the fiddle-blocks at the mast-heads. From the block the bunt-jigger leads down forward of the topsail, under the

foot, and hooks to the upper glut. The after end of the pendant has a single block (an iron-bound swivel) spliced in and a whip rove, abaft all, to the deck.

      The bunt-jiggers of the courses lead in the same way, through a single block under the top. Rove single.

      Topgallant bunt-jiggers lead in a similar way through a small iron block at the topgallant mast-head, and into the top.

      In many vessels topsail bunt-jiggers^* are led through a single block hooked to the eye-bolt in the heel of the topgallant-mast. This gives a better lead. When sending the mast up and down, the block is transferred to a small strap on the collar of the topmast-stay.

      The above list comprises the principal running rigging of men-of-war, together with the leads usually adopted. It sometimes happens that the lead of the gear on deck is modified for special reasons. For instance, in vessels with little quarter-deck space, the hauling part of the fore-brace is often led aft, and that of the fore-topsail brace, forward. The object is to have the foretopmen nearer to their own parts of the ship when bracing in to reef, and to keep them out of the way of the men on the main-topsail brace.

      Lead of Gear about the Smoke-Stack. In making long passages under steam against a prevailing contrary wind, it is not unfrequent to see the lead of gear in the neighborhood of the smoke-stack, temporarily altered for the preservation of the rope. The hauling part of the fore topsail-brace and both parts of the fore-brace are brought down; the standing part of the fore-brace being hooked to a band on the mainmast ten or twelve feet above the deck, or to a launch's davit, if waist launches are carried.

      Main-topsail-sheets are unrove from the quarter-blocks; gear about the mainmast is hauled up and covered with tarpaulins. All this takes little time to do, and in the event of a favoring slant, the gear can be readily rove off for making sail. The head braces have a fair lead when shifted as above described, and if a favoring breeze freshens, or seems likely to hold, preventer braces can be clapped on, and the regular ones shifted to their proper places aloft without shortening sail.

      Temporary changes similar to the above are unobjectionable, in so far as they affect the lead aloft. But care

should be taken not to alter leads about the deck except for good cause. So much of the handling of gear is done in the dark that the men may be confused, perhaps at a critical moment, if the position of any running rigging is frequently varied from that sanctioned by well-established custom.

      Canvas is made of hemp, flax and cotton.

      All canvas used in the navy for sails is flaxen, made in cloths of eighty yards in length, and in breadth of twenty inches. These cloths are rolled up in separate packages, called bolts. The stoutest canvas is No. 1; from this number it increases in fineness, and diminishes in strength, to No. 9 (see table in Appendix E).

      In selecting canvas for sails, considerable practice and close observation are required. Besides the method detailed in the table of canvas, above mentioned, a good test is to bore a fid through the canvas, when, if bad, the threads are easily broken.

      It is of importance that canvas should have a good and even selvage, and be free from tightness.

      There is a great deal of difference in the stretching of canvas-that which is badly struck stretching most.

      The principal sails of a ship are-the courses, or sails on the lower yards; the topsails, which are next in order above the courses, and the top-gallant sails, which are extended above the topsails.

      For sails, see Plate 3, and corresponding reference numbers.

      In all quadrilateral sails, the upper edge is called the head; the sides are called the leeches; and the bottom, or lower edge, is termed the foot. If the head is parallel to the foot, the lower corners are denominated clews, and the upper corners head-earing cringles.

      In all triangular sails, and in those four-sided sails wherein the head is not parallel to the foot, the foremost corner at the foot is called the tack, and the after lower corner the clew; the forward corner of the head the nock, the after corner the peak, or head. The foremost edge (or side) is called the fore-leech, or luff, and the aftermost edge the after-leech.

      Stay Sails. These are extended upon stays between the masts, taking their names from the stay on which they set. Those used in the navy are the fore-top-mast staysail, main-topmast and main-topgallant staysail and mizzen topmast staysail.

      Studding Sails are set out beyond the leeches of

the foresail, topsail and topgallant sail, also beyond the main-topsail and topgallant sail, being known as the lower, topmast and topgallant studding-sails. Their upper edges are extended by studding-sail yards, the lower edges by booms rigged out beyond the extremities of the ship's yards. These sails are used only in favorable winds and moderate weather.

      Additional Sails. Above the royals may be set sails called moonsails, sky-scrapers, &c. In the navy nothing is set above royals. In the merchant service rarely anything above a skysail. The sails usually set forward of the foremast are the fore-topmast staysail, jib and flying-jib. Some vessels carry outer-jibs, jib-of-jibs, or jib-topsails.

      Storm-Sails are made of the strongest canvas, and are used, as the name indicates, only in the heaviest weather.

      These consist of the fore, main and mizzen storm stay-sails and the "storm-mizzen." The storm-staysails set on the respective lower-stays, or better, on a temporary storm-stay, toggled in the collar of the lower stay.